Mission Statement
The mission of science education in Kansas is to prepare students as lifelong learners who can use their science training to make reasoned decisions that will be beneficial in their personal, career, commercial, political, and civic activities. All students, regardless of gender, race, religious beliefs, creed, cultural or ethnic background, future aspirations, should have the opportunity to attain high levels of scientific literacy. Science education in Kansas is not to promote one philosophical, religious or world view over another. The goal is "just science in the science classroom."
Dedication
The Kansas Science Education Standards are dedicated to all Kansas students. Our students are the future of Kansas. With this document, we hope to help create a science classroom environment that will help students learn the value, nature, limitations, and content of science which, in turn, will help them to know that as lifelong learners of science, we can live more productive, responsible, and fulfilling lives.
Purpose of Kansas Science Education Standards
The purpose of this document is to:
These standards, benchmarks, and indicators are designed to assist Kansas accredited educators in selecting and developing local curricula, carrying out instruction, and making assessments. Also, they will serve as the foundation for the development of state assessments of accredited school science programs. Finally, these standards, benchmarks, and indicators represent high, yet reasonable, expectations for accredited school students.
Students may need further support in and beyond the regular classroom to attain these science standards. Teachers and school administrators are encouraged to seek the participation of parents, and other community organizations and members to assist students in working toward meeting or exceeding these science standards.
These standards should not be viewed as a state curriculum nor as requiring a specific local curriculum. These standards should not limit nor curtail the development and inclusion of other topics of science in local curricula. The content embodied in these standards can be organized and presented with many different emphases and perspectives in many different curricula.
Background Information
The original Kansas Curricular Standards for Science were drafted in 1992, approved by the Kansas State Board of Education in 1993, and up-dated in 1995. At the August, 1997 meeting of the Kansas State Board of Education, the Board directed that academic standards committees composed of stakeholders from throughout Kansas should be convened in each curriculum area defined by Kansas law (reading, writing, mathematics, science, and social studies). The National Science Education Standards have been reviewed and used where appropriate.
Acknowledgments
This document was prepared by the Kansas State Board of Education with the aid of a Citizens Drafting Committee, and is based upon a substantial revision of the second working draft prepared by the Kansas Science Education Standards Writing Committee.
Concepts that merit emphasis in the science classroom
There is in science education a tendency to teach facts and theories without a real understanding of the fundamental principles of science. With these standards, there is a shift in emphasis to understanding. However, it must be stressed that without knowledge of facts and theories, there is no basis for understanding. Conversely, without understanding there is no basis for appreciating or evaluating facts and theories, or for making informed decisions based on scientific knowledge. These standards reflect the following emphases:
What is Science? - The Definition and Nature of Science
To properly learn or teach science it is important to understand what it is and its nature and limitations. The word "science" comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. There are many types of knowledge; physics, chemistry, biology, religious, philosophical, natural history, origins research, etc., and in the past science was used to mean any of these kinds of knowledge. Today, however, the word is used to mean a certain kind of knowledge; knowledge that has been, in some way, verified. Two key processes are involved in the endeavor to acquire new knowledge: arriving at new knowledge and verifying it.
Arriving at New Knowledge or Proposed New Knowledge: e.g., Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws
The process used by individuals to arrive at ideas that may become productive new knowledge is very complex and varies dramatically among individuals. Often the following are included:
The culmination of these processes should be a concise proposal, usually called a Hypothesis, Theory, Law or Model. Science argues cogently for a hierarchy indicating degree to which the proposal has been tested, however, no such standards have ever been rigorously applied.
Verifying Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws &emdash; A Key Step in Science
Tests of theories ought to meet certain criteria.
Students should understand that the definition of empirical science is: Science which is observable. If a theory is not repeatable by independent tests it cannot properly be called a "scientific theory." If this type of theory or test is accepted, it is accepted on the basis of testimony, (which falls within the legal method of proof) not observation. For a more comprehensive discussion of Repeatability, see Appendix 2, What Is Science?
Students should understand that, to be a test of a theory, the test must be designed in such a way that failure would invalidate the theory. Tests of consequences of a theory may provide evidence supporting the theory and may be repeatedly successful, but may not be a true test of the theory. Theories that have not been tested with falsification tests, cannot be said to have been tested.
Students should learn to critically evaluate theories and their tests. They should also learn the basics of experimental design and the logic behind the basics.
Therefore, science is knowledge, but for modern scientific explanations to be considered valid, they must meet certain criteria:
- They should be internally logically coherent:
- They should be consistent with all experimental and/or observational data;
- They should be testable, by others, in such a way that, if the explanations are false, the tests can show that they are false, i.e. they must be repeatable and falsifiable;
- They should be tested by other scientists through additional experimentation and/or observation, and;
- They must be open to criticism
Since science today is defined as empirical and, therefore, inductive, all scientific theories are held tentatively. If direct tests on the theory have been repeatedly successful, these can and should be reported as lending support to the theory. If direct tests of the theory have not been made, or cannot be made, the theory is speculative. If tests have repeatedly failed to verify the theory, it should be modified, or discarded.
Even when many apparently successful tests have been made on a theory, it cannot be claimed to be true, theories can only be falsified. Theories can and do change as new evidence becomes available. Therefore, students should be called upon to examine, understand and challenge theories. Requiring affirmation only serves to deceive students and to retard progress in science.
(A more complete definition of science is included in Appendix 2: What Is Science?)
Areas of Science
Science is traditionally divided into two broad areas that cut across the traditional disciplines of science: Theoretical Science, and Technology. A third category of investigation is Natural history and origins research, often called Historical Science, but is truly much different than Theoretical Science and Technology. Each area tends to apply different kinds of reasoning and utilize different processes. These areas also define different levels of confidence. While there are certainly areas of overlap, there is generally a considerable distinction between the three areas.
Technology is the area of science that is often called "applied science" or "engineering," because it involves application of knowledge to attempt to improve man’s lot in life.
The Nature of Technology
Technology often uses explanations (theories) from theoretical science, though most technology was clearly developed without benefit of theoretical science. Technology tends to be extensively tested, but the tests tend to be designed for different objectives; efficacy, safety, cost/performance, value to the end user. It is important to note that the "extensive testing" common in technology does not assure that the theories and ideas utilized therein are true or, even the best that can be done. In fact the test criteria in technology are typically not aimed at verification as much as they are aimed at "economic feasibility," i.e., will the idea produce results economically that meet safety and efficacy requirements of the application.
It is technology that has given mankind "modern conveniences." See for example: Funk and Wagnell’s Encyclopedia as cited in Appendix 3.
A large number, but a modest percentage, of theories are thoroughly tested and are widely used in technology. For example, Ohm’s Law which relates the voltage drop across an electrical component when a current passes through it and the 2nd Law of Motion, which postulates the relationship between force, mass and acceleration has been tested so often and found to work in so many practical applications, that reasonable men employ it every day. However, because a theory, in this case the 2nd Law of Motion, is successful in many cases, it does not mean that it is proven or true. The point is that technology will not await the outcome of theoretical debates, though the outcome of these debates may impact technology at some point in time.
The characteristics of technology are:
Theoretical Science is the area of science that tends to constitute statements about some aspect of the natural world. Often theoretical science is quantitative and employs mathematics. Theoretical science typically involves explanations of how nature works rather than how to harness nature for man’s benefit
The Nature of Theoretical Science
Theories in empirical science are derived from human experience, wisdom and inductive reasoning. Theories ought to be tested using repeatable experiments or observations, carefully designed to show the theories to be false, if they are false. Repeated failure to falsify theories, increases confidence they may be true. They should also be tested by Peer and Public Review. The word theory, does not connote verification, nor imply earned acceptance. While this is understood by most people, it is often ignored by textbooks and proponents of theories. Often the phenomenon itself has been so widely observed and tested that it is used in technology, and yet, the explanation (theory) has not been tested, or has been tested very little, and may even have many opponents.
The characteristics of theoretical science are:
(historical geology, historical biology, paleontology, natural history, archeology, historical anthropology, etc.)
Natural History and Origins Research - consists of various activities whose outcome is intended to be knowledge of the history of the earth, life, and the cosmos. These studies generate much interest among all ages of people.
The Nature of Natural History and Origins Research
Explanations about events for which there were no witnesses and for which there exists no recorded history are entirely different than those which can be repeated today. Theories about the origin of the cosmos, life, and various kinds of plants and animals are often presented using the terminology and styles employed in science. They are often called theories, models, hypotheses and even "principles". But even if such explanations of the past are true, they are not testable using the tools of science. Such explanations may be supported by evidence that is testable, repeatable and falsifiable in the present, but the historical events themselves can never be repeated, and a priori assumptions must always be made to extrapolate that evidence or experiments of the present into the past. Regardless of how elegant or how much supporting data is claimed, such explanations cannot be valid unless the assumptions are valid, but there is no way to test the validity of the assumptions. Therefore, explanations about the past are not in the same category as statements about the biology of present life forms, the composition of rocks, or observations of the cosmos today which can be tested and verified by independent investigators conducting repeatable experiments and observations.
The characteristics of Natural history and origins research are:
The content of much natural history and origins research has extremely important implications involving where we came from, why we are here, how we should live, and what is our ultimate destiny. These implications rightly cause active debate. This does not mean the issue must be avoided, but does mean the teacher should handle the subject in a responsible manner. It is inappropriate to place theories concerning historical events before students, alongside other theories in geology, physics, biology, etc., which are required to pass rigorous testing.
Kansas Will Not Mandate Belief or Understanding of Any Natural History and Origins Research. There are two basic origins views; evolution and intelligent design. There are many variations usually consisting of elements of both these views, and some whose proponents may feel are different from either. These views are part of a whole class of natural history and origins research theories that do not qualify as empirical science. Natural history and origins research cannot be demonstrated, repeated, or falsified in the same manner as ideas which can be demonstrated in the present, and no proof can be advanced that one view is superior to another in ensuring successful research, much less good citizenship. Therefore, since no compelling secular purpose can be demonstrated, Kansas Science Standards will not mandate belief in or understanding of any natural history and origins research theory. We expect that most teachers will cover one or more origins views to some degree , however, Kansas will not include benchmarks or indicators for any of them. The decision about how to cover these topics will be left to the local districts and/or the classroom teacher.
It is obvious from the definitions of "Science" and "Theory," and from reflecting on the fragility of inductive reasoning, that teachers, whether teaching technological, theoretical or natural history and origins research, should refrain from making dogmatic statements about theories or requiring that students affirm them as opposed to understanding them. Accredited school teachers should refrain from teaching any theory, regardless of how popular, in such a manner as to censor evidence that tends to place the theory in an unfavorable light. The causes of good citizenship, science literacy, and critical thinking skills are not served by the censoring of scientific evidence or alternate theories. Ridiculing or in any other way discouraging students or faculty from introducing scientific information is unacceptable.
Teaching Technological Science
The science curriculum should strongly attempt to acquaint the student with the technology that supports the culture. Very few science students will, as an adult, have a job in Theoretical Science enabling them to engage only in production of new knowledge or new theories. The majority of students taking science courses will apply them in a field of technology or will apply them in making personal or public decisions. Even where pure research is being done, it is important that practitioners be well grounded in the facts and theories of science that have been verified by thorough testing to be reasonable descriptions of the way the cosmos behaves. It is virtually impossible to learn all these facts and theories in a lifetime, much less in a few years in primary and secondary education. Therefore, most science curricula should focus on understanding ideas in science that are substantially verified or currently widely employed in technological fields. However, this does not imply that technology should be taught as "true," it should be taught as being something that works.
Technology seldom relies on Theoretical Science or working hypotheses. Rather it relies on those ideas from the past that have been so thoroughly tested, often long before a theory was proposed, that they are now in common use and are often referred to as laws. It is the application of ideas and theories that earn them respect, not the number of scientists who believe them. The following is an illustrative listing of such laws that technologists apply everyday.
|
LAW |
DESCRIPTION |
|
Ohm’s Law |
Relationship between voltage drop across an electrical component and the current flowing through it. |
|
Kirchhoff’s Laws |
The algebraic sum of the currents which meet at any point is zero. |
|
Conservation of Energy |
In all interactions of mass, the total energy is conserved |
|
Conservation of Mass |
For any collision the vector sum of the moments of the colliding bodies after collision equals the vector sum of their moments before the collision. I think this Law is incorrectly copied. drd |
|
Conservation of Momentum |
For any collision the vector sum of the moments of the colliding bodies after collision equals the vector sum of their moments before the collision. |
|
Entropy |
In all energy interactions in a closed system, order decreases. |
|
Boyle’s Law for gases |
At a constant temperature the volume of a given quantity of any gas varies inversely as the pressure to which the gas is subjected. |
|
Kepler’s Laws |
The motion of the planets, in relation to that of the sun are ellipses, at one focus of which the sun is situated. |
|
Pascal’s Law |
Pressure exerted at any point upon a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions. |
Practices in technology are subject to dynamic change. In fact, because technology is being widely employed in society, new discoveries are common and verification or rejection tends to be much more rapid than in theoretical fields where there is little applied technology. A good teaching practice is to contrast one technological practice or theory with alternative technologies. Which works best is a particular application?
Teaching Theoretical Science
It is best to teach the theories as potentially useful ideas, which should be kept in mind when problems arise that seem to be addressed by the theory. Rather than teach the students to believe or affirm theories, it is better to encourage the students to understand the theories and the evidence and reasoning behind them. Students should be encouraged and trained in critical thinking by assigning them to select popular theories and research the history, proponents, evidence and reasoning that led to the popularity of the theory. This will help students gain abilities to critically analyze scientific theories they encounter the rest of their lives, giving them much better scientific literacy, enabling them to contribute wisely to public discourse that involves scientific questions. This approach will also contribute to the expansion of true knowledge.
Serious theoretical inquiry should be reserved for academic levels that are sufficiently scientifically literate to utilize the intellectual tools of the trade. Presenting complex theories to students who are not qualified to examine the assumptions, data, or reasoning, is not education, but indoctrination.
When teaching theoretical science, teachers should always be aware that technology may result from theoretical science. Technology is not distinguished from theoretical science by absence of theory. On the contrary, it is distinguished often by having preceded theory, and by utilizing facts and theory that has been verified to be viable knowledge (science).
Teaching Natural history and origins research
Theories about the past, regardless of how many scientists endorse them, cannot be subjected to the same rigorous testing standards required of other theories, therefore, they should always be presented more tentatively than other science. In the science classroom, students should not be tested about such theories in a manner that causes the "correct" answer to require an affirmation of the theory. If the local Board or teacher feels the subject should be taught, it is quite easy to phrase questions in such a manner as to evaluate understanding of the theory without requiring affirmation. The same degree of skepticism, critique, analysis, and presentation of alternate natural history and origins research theories should be encouraged as is recommended for all other theories.
Tools, Concepts and Methods of Science
There are a number of tools, concepts and methods that are used across multiple disciplines of science. These tools, concepts and methods are embedded within and across the seven science standards presented in this document. These tools that investigators use in their attempts to understand and explain the cosmos are listed and explained below.
Systems: The natural and designed world is complex; it is too large and complicated to investigate and comprehend all at once. Scientists and students learn to define small portions for the convenience of investigations. The units of investigation can be referred to as systems, where a system is an organized group of related objects or components that form a whole. Systems are categorized as open, closed, or isolated, and can consist of organisms, machines, fundamental particles, galaxies, numbers, and cardiovascular systems. Systems typically have boundaries, components, resources, flow (input and output), and feedback.
Order: Sequential and positional relationships of events and components are often keys to understanding their function and purpose.
Organization: Types and levels of organizations provide useful ways of thinking about the world. Types of organization include the periodic table of elements and the classification of organisms. Physical systems can be described at different levels of organization - such as fundamental particles, atoms, and molecules. Living systems also have different levels of organizations - for example, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, populations, and communities.
Observation: Observation is similar and related to experimentation, but frequently refers to information gathered from careful investigation of existing systems as opposed to contrived events designed to produce observations (experiments). In the scientific method, results of Measurements, Experiments and Observations are evaluated inductively. (See experimentation, deduction, or induction below)
Experimentation: Experiments are typically contrived or planned observations. They are important in both acquiring data for learning about natural systems and falsifying or verifying theories.
Measurement: Measurements are planned observations, using accepted conventions, to describe properties of objects and systems. Examples of measurements are dimensions, velocity, acceleration, mass and weight. It is extremely difficult to draw detailed conclusions about systems without measurement.
Evidence: Evidence consists of information collected from experiments, observations, measurements, etc. on which scientific explanations are based. Using evidence to understand interactions helps investigators to predict changes in natural and designed systems.
Change: Change is an observed characteristic of the cosmos that all human observers must recognize in order to understand or formulate theories about the properties of systems and objects. In order even to begin scientific investigation, one must understand that "change" is universally understood as an effect produced by adequate causes. The most common purpose of scientific investigation is to understand the causes of observed change. A common error is to mistake the change for a cause; learning to recognize this error should be part of the teaching of critical thinking.
Constancy: Most things in the cosmos are subject to forces and processes that result in change; some properties of objects and processes are currently understood to be constant (e.g., speed of light, charge of an electron, total mass and energy in the universe). Students should realize that constancy is itself a theory reinforced by experiment, observation and induction. It is verified only within the context of current measurement technology.
Deductive Reasoning: Deduction is the reasoning process that draws conclusions about a subset of the whole (the "particulars, Aristotle called them) based on beliefs or knowledge about the whole.. Deduction is a valid tool in science and math. All the theorems of Plane Geometry, for example, are proved to be true using mathematical deduction. In science it is used especially in technology where general principles are applied to specific problems. However, it should be remembered that any deduction, typically expressed as an equation, may appear more impressive than it actually is. Since in natural science all general principles are derived by experimentation, observation and induction, all deduction is based either on assumption, induction or both. Therefore, no matter how elegant, deduction cannot be any better than the data and inductive reasoning that furnished the general principle.
Equilibrium: A physical state in which forces and changes occur in opposite and offsetting directions, such as opposite forces at the same magnitude, or offsetting changes occurring at equal rates is called equilibrium. Steady state, balance, and homeostasis also describe equilibrium states. Interacting units of matter tend toward equilibrium states in which the energy is distributed as randomly and uniformly as possible.
Inductive Reasoning: Inductive reasoning is the basis for empirical scientific inquiry; it is the reasoning process that draws conclusions about the whole from observations about the parts (particulars). In trying to understand the cosmos man must cope with the fact that it is extremely large, complex, and interrelated; man can never put it all into a laboratory and make it and make it perform for him. Measurements, experiments and observations, in and of themselves, do not formulate or verify theories. The results of these activities must be evaluated by human reasoning. Using inductive strategies the scientist examines as much of the data associated with the issue he is perusing as he can, then attempts to draw conclusions (theories, etc.) about the whole. Theories, even though they seem to adequately "explain" all known data and thus, may be useful, are often incorrect; this is especially a problem when the whole is much larger than the pieces examined. Conclusions or theories must be exhaustively tested before being accepted as valid. If further research provides data a theory cannot account for, the theory must be changed or discarded.
Explanations: Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws. Theories, models, hypotheses and laws are attempts by man to explain the content and or behavior of objects and systems. These scientific explanations incorporate existing scientific knowledge that consists of observations and data from experiments. Such explanations are tentative schemes that should correspond to real objects. Models may be used by theoretical scientists to describe their theories. Models are frequently used by engineers and applied scientists in simulating designs and processes. These models may take many forms, including physical objects, engineering designs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations that incorporate scientific theories which have been rigorously verified to the extent that they have been widely employed or are widely accepted as laws.
Paradigm A paradigm is a philosophical frame of reference under which people make personal and scientific judgments and assessments. It is the frame of reference within which data and observations are interpreted. Explanations and interpretation of observations and data are always biased by the paradigm under which the observer is operating. Paradigms are generally outside of empirical verification.
Overview:
The Kansas Science Education Standards are divided into seven areas called "standards". These standards are general statements of what students should know, understand, and be able to do in the natural sciences over the course of their K-12 education. These standards are:
The traditional subject matter disciplines of science (biology, physics, chemistry, etc.) are embedded within the context of the seven standards. The standards are interwoven ideas, however, not separate entities, and should be taught as interwoven ideas. These standards are clustered for grade levels K-2, 3-4, 5-8, and 9-12.
Science as Inquiry:
Inquiry is central to science learning and to the science progress. When engaging in inquiry, students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, identify faulty reasoning and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop an understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills. As a result of such experiences, students will be empowered to add to the growing body of scientific knowledge. Historically, many innovations in science require that the currently popular theories be challenged and then changed. Therefore, the skills learned in inquiry should not be limited to the experiments that the students do in the classroom. In addition, students will learn to identify the assumptions that underlie the hypotheses, theories and laws taught to them in the classroom.
Physical Science:
Physical science encompasses the traditional disciplines of physics and chemistry. Students should develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and force, velocity, structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interaction of energy and matter and their applications in the other sciences such as biology, medicine and earth science.
Life Science:
Students will develop an understanding of biological concepts. Students should learn: the characteristics of life, the needs of living organisms, their life cycles, their habitats, the molecular basis of heredity, and reproduction. They should also learn how organisms interact with their environment, energy transfer from the sun and through the environmental system, the chemical basis for life and behavior of organisms. Students should be able to apply process skills to explore and demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, heredity, regulation and behavior, and ecosystems.
Life Science is interactive with Physical Science, Earth and Space Science and Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interrelationship among these standards.
Earth and Space Science:
While Earth and Space Science encompasses the traditional disciplines of geology and astronomy and the basic subject matter of these disciplines will be taught, it also includes interactive elements with the Life Sciences, the Physical Sciences, Technology and the environment. Students will develop and understanding of the Earth system, the solar system and the cosmos.
Technology:
Technology encompasses the advances made by man to improve his condition and to develop the tools he needs to accomplish his goals.
Science In Personal and Environmental Perspectives:
Students should develop an appreciation and understanding of personal and community health, natural resources, natural and human-induced hazards and improvements, and technological implications in quality of life. All students should be able to research and assess prevailing environmental and personal health issues and develop a rational understanding of man’s relationship to the environment.
History and Nature of Science:
Understanding the history, nature of science and limitations of science is fundamental to scientific learning. Students will learn to distinguish between science and other forms of knowledge or beliefs such as philosophy and religion. Science uses observation, experimentation, induction and deduction, and experimental, observational and statistical verification strategies in formulating and testing the validity of explanations for the behavior of the world around us. These explanations ought to be testable, repeatable, falsifiable, open to criticism and not based upon authority. It is also important that students learn to distinguish between scientific information (data), scientific explanations (hypotheses, theories, laws, principles, etc.) and the scientific method (the process of arriving at and verifying scientific explanations). Students should learn the applications and limits of science and the inductive and deductive reasoning processes that underlie science.
Benchmarks, Indicators and Examples
Each standard contains a series of benchmarks, which describe what students should be able to do at the end of a certain point in their education (e.g., grade 2, 4, 8, 12). Each benchmark contains a series of indicators, which identify what it means for students to meet a benchmark. Indicators are frequently followed by examples, which are specific, concrete ideas.
Benchmarks: are specific statements of what students should know and be able to do at a specified point in their schooling. Benchmarks are used to measure students’ progress toward meeting a standard. In the Kansas Science Education Standards, benchmarks are defined for grades 2, 4, 8 and 12.
Indicators: are statements of the knowledge skills which students demonstrate in order to meet a benchmark. Indicators are critical to understanding the benchmarks and standards and are to be met by all students. The set of indicators listed under each benchmark is not listed in priority order nor should the list be considered as all inclusive. The list of indicators and examples should be considered as representative, but not as comprehensive or all-inclusive.
Examples: are specific, concrete instances of ideas or activities of what is called for by an indicator. Like the indicators themselves, examples are considered to be representative, but not comprehensive or all-inclusive.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should begin to develop an understanding of the steps and tools used in doing scientific inquiry.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop abilities necessary to do scientific inquiries. Not every activity will involve all of the steps of scientific inquiry nor must any particular sequences of these steps be followed. Inquiry involves asking a simple question, completing an investigation, answering the question, and presenting the results to others.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Identify characteristics of objects. Example: State characteristics of leaves, shells, water, and air.
4 2. Classify and arrange groups by a variety of characteristics.
Example: Group seeds by color, texture, size; group objects by whether they float or sink; group rocks by texture, color, and hardness.
4 3. Use appropriate materials and tools to collect information.
Example: Uses magnifiers, balances, scales, thermometers measuring cups, and spoons.
4. Ask and answer questions about objects, organisms, and events in their environment. Example: The student will ask, "What must I do to balance an object on my finger?"
Example: The student will ask "Which parts of a fish and a bird are the same" and "which parts are different." Why are the different parts important for each organism?
5. Describe an observation orally or pictorially. Example: Draw pictures of plant growth on a daily basis; note color, number of leaves.
Example: Tell how a clam shell found along a creek bank looks like a fossil clam shell.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of the activities in grades K-2, all students should be encouraged to explore the world by observing and manipulating common objects and materials in their environment.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop abilities to describe objects.
All students will begin to compare, describe, and sort objects.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using age appropriate tools and materials.
Example: Compare size, weight, shape, color, temperature and texture of objects.
4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.
Example: Compare materials made from wood, metal and cloth, and plastics.
4 3. Separate or sort a group of objects of materials.
Example: Compare shapes, sizes, weights, color and textures of objects.
4 4. Compare solids and liquids.
Example: Compare the properties of water with the properties of wood.
4 5. Record observations in a chart that demonstrates classification, e.g., weight vs material for blocks of the same size or relative color of different concentrations of solution.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will begin to develop an understanding of biological concepts.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the characteristics of living things.
Through direct experiences, students will observe living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Discuss that living things need air, water, and food.
Example: What students need…what plants need…what animals need.
- Observe life cycles of different living things.
Example: Butterflies, meal worms, plants and humans.
3. Observe living things in various environments. Example: Classroom plants, nature walks in your own area, various field trips, terrariums, aquariums.
4 4. Examine the characteristics of living things.
Example: Butterflies have wings. Plants may have leaves and roots. People have skin and hair.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should be encouraged to observe closely the objects and materials in their environment.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to describe properties of Earth materials.
Earth materials may include rock, soil, air and water.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Group Earth materials.
Example: Describe and compare soils by color and texture, sort pebbles and rocks by size, shape and color.
4 2. Describe where earth materials are found.
Example: Around the playground, on a field trip, in their own yard.
Benchmark 2: All students will observe and compare objects in the sky.
The sun, moon, stars, birds and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Distinguish between manmade and non-manmade objects in the sky. Example: Birds vs. Airplanes.
- Recognize sun, moon and stars.
Example: Observe day and night sky regularly.
4 3. Describe that the sun provides light and warmth.
Example: Feel heat from the sun on the face and skin. Observe shadows.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to describe changes in the weather.
Weather includes snow, rain, sleet, wind and violent storms.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Observe changes in the weather from day to day. Example: Draw pictures
- Record weather changes daily
Example: Weather charts, calendars and logs.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should have a variety of educational experiences that involve technology. As can be seen in the following sections, the benchmarks are developed in greater depth in subsequent grades as students’ interests develop.
Benchmark 1: All students will learn about technology in the world around them.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Explore the way things work. Example: Observe the inner workings of toys, clocks, telephones, toasters, music boxes, magnetic compass and measuring tools such as tape measure, spirit level and spring scale. The student should identify the feature of the items that make it work the way it does, ex: tuned pins in a music box, gear train and escapement in clocks, bubble in curved tube full of liquid.
4 2. Experience science through technology in measuring tools.
Example: Analyze balances, electronic and liquid filled thermometers, and hand lenses and bug viewers. Explain the features found, and tell how the feature is essential to the function of the device.
3. Experience science through technology in the kitchen Example: Explore simple machines, i.e., wedge, lever and wheel, and their combinations, ramp, screw, pulley, roller and axle from the common kitchen items, such as sausage grinder and rolling pins. Identify the simple machines and discover the way they make tasks easier to perform.
Example: try to find how many machines are built into a kitchen device like a hand powered egg beater - a crank or level.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students should have a variety of experiences that provide initial understanding for various science-related personal environmental challenges.
This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to understand their own health.
Health encompasses safety, personal hygiene, exercise and nutrition.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Discuss that safety and security are basic human needs. Examples: Traffic signals, crosswalks and not talking to strangers.
2. Discuss weather safety procedures.
Example: Practice tornado drill procedures, talk about the danger of lightning and flooding.
3. Engage in personal care.
Examples: Washing hands, brushing teeth, wearing appropriate clothing, taking baths, being careful what is put in one’s mouth.
4. Discuss healthy foods.
Example: Cut out pictures of foods and sort into four healthy food groups, discussing the benefits of each group.
By The End Of SECOND GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades K-2, all students will begin to be aware of science as being empirical in nature. Students will learn about people in science from history.
This standard should be integrated with physical science, life science and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to learn the empirical nature of science.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Use their senses to see what happens when they do an experiment. Examples: Place a banana or an orange (with and without the skin) or crayon in water. Hold an M&M or a chocolate chip or a raisin in one hand. See what happens when you rub your hands together very fast.
2. Learn about people in science.
Examples: Short stories, films, videos and parents who are involved in science.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, students should develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry.
Benchmark 1: All students will continue to develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry. However, not every activity will involve all of the steps of scientific inquiry nor must any particular sequences of these steps be followed. Students will ask questions that can be investigated using scientific inquiry, design experiments that will answer these questions and perform the investigations.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Ask questions that they can answer by scientific investigation.
Example: Will oil and water mix? How much water will a sponge hold?
Example: What happens when an acid (vinegar) and a base (baking soda) are mixed? How long will it react?
4 2. Plan and conduct a simple investigation.
Example: Design a test of the wet strength of paper towels; experiment with plant growth; experiment to find ways to prevent soil erosion.
4 3. Employ appropriate equipment and tools to gather data.
Example: Use a balance to find the mass of a wet paper towel, meter sticks to measure length of the room, their height, arm span.
4 4. Begin developing the abilities to communicate, critique, and analyze their own investigations and interpret the work of other students. Example: Describe investigations with pictures, written language, oral presentations.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of the activities in grades 3-4, all students will compare, describe and sort as they begin to form explanations of the world.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop abilities to describe objects.
Through observation, manipulation and classification of common objects, students observe and describe the similarities and differences of the objects.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Observe properties and measure those properties using appropriate tools.
Example: Observe the size, weight, shape, color and temperature of objects using balances, thermometers and other measurement tools.
4 2. Describe objects by the materials from which they are made.
Example: Separate or sort a group of objects by the materials from which they are made.
4 3. Describe objects by more than one property.
Example: Observe that an object could be hard, round and rough.
4 4. Observe and record how one object reacts with another object or substance.
Example: Mix baking soda and vinegar and observe how the mixture fizzes.
4 5. Recognize the difference between solids and liquids.
Example: Solid has a shape, liquid does not. Observe the difference between two disparate solids, e.g. plastic and steel. Observe the difference between two disparate liquids, e.g. water and salad oil.
Benchmark 2: All students will manipulate and describe the movement of objects and record observations.
When students describe and manipulate objects, they also begin to focus on position and movement of objects.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Move objects by pushing, pulling, throwing, spinning, dropping and rolling. Example: Spin a top; roll a ball.
4 2. Demonstrate locations of objects.
Example: Describe locations as up, down, in front or behind.
4 3. Observe forces required to produce motion Example: Push block on flat surface, then ramp. Blow on wadded paper.
Example: Have a tug-of-war to demonstrate balanced (equal, opposite) forces. Static equals no motion. Dynamic equals motion of unbalanced forces.
4 4. Demonstrate movement.
Example: Direction of force is always the same as direction of motion.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to recognize and demonstrate what makes sounds.
The concept of sound is very abstract. However, by investigating a variety of sounds made by common objects, students can form a connection between sounds the objects make and the materials from which the objects are made. Plastic objects make a different sound than do wooden objects.
Indicators: The student will:
1. Discriminate between sounds made by different objects. Example: Listen to drums, other musical instruments, cans, gourds, plastic spoons, pennies, plastic disks and compare the sounds they make.
Benchmark 4: All students will experiment with electricity and magnetism.
Repeated activities involving simple electrical circuits can help students develop the concept that electrical circuits require a complete loop through which an electric current can pass. Magnets attract and repel each other and certain kinds of other materials.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Construct a simple circuit.
Example: Use a battery, bulb and a wire to light a bulb; make a motor run; produce sound; make an electromagnet.
4 2. Demonstrate that magnets attract and repel.
4 3. Design a simple experiment to determine whether various objects will be attracted to magnets.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will build an understanding of biological concepts through direct experience with living things, their life cycles, and their habitats.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop a knowledge of organisms in their environment.
The study of organisms should include observations and interactions within the natural world of the student.
Indicators: The Students will:
4 1. Compare and contrast structural characteristics and functions of different organisms. Example: Compare a meal worm to a guppy, compare a bean seed to a corn seed.
4 2. Compare basic needs of different organisms in their environment.
Example: Fish live in water compared to birds that do not.
3. Discuss ways humans and other organisms use their senses in their environments. Example: Food acquisition, shelter, defense.
Benchmark 2: All students will observe and illustrate the life cycles of various organisms.
Plants and animals have life cycles that have different beginnings, maturing into adults, reproducing, and eventually dying.
Indicators: The Students will:
4 1. Compare, contrast, and ask questions about the life cycles of various organisms.
Example: Seed to seedling to plant; larva to pupa to adult.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will be encouraged to observe closely the objects, materials, and changes in their environment, note their properties, distinguish one from another, and develop their own explanations of how things become the way they are which are consistent with observations.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop an understanding of the properties of earth materials.
Earth materials may include rock, soil, and water. Playgrounds or parks are convenient study sites to observe.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Observe a variety of earth materials in their environment. Examples: Rocks, soil, sand, air, and water.
4 2. Collect, observe, and become aware of properties of various soils.
Example: Students could bring in samples of soils from their surroundings and observe color, texture, and reaction to water.
4 3. Experiment with a variety of soils.
Example: By planting seeds in a variety of soil samples, students can compare the effect of different soils on plant growth.
4 4. Describe properties of many different kinds of rocks.
Example: Bring rocks from the playground, immerse in water, and observe color, texture, and reaction to liquids.
5. Observe fossils and discuss how fossils provide evidence of plants and animals that lived in the past. Example: Provide a variety of fossils for observation. Discuss how fossils are formed; how long it takes an organism to decay or to be scavenged; how long it takes an organism to be fossilized; whether or not all fossilized organisms were dead at the time of burial (i.e. closed clam fossils).
Benchmark 2: All students will be guided to observe and describe objects in the sky.
The sun, moon, stars, clouds, birds, and other objects such as airplanes have properties that can be observed and compared.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Observe the moon and stars. Example: Sketch the position of the moon in relation to a tree, rooftop, or building.
2. Observe and compare the length of shadows.
Example: Students can observe the movement of an object’s shadow during the course of a day, or construct simple sundials.
4 3. Discuss that the sun provides light and heat to maintain the temperature of the earth. Example: When on the playground and the sun goes behind a cloud, discuss why it seems cooler.
Benchmark 3: all students will develop an ability to describe changes in the earth and weather.
If the students revisit a study site regularly, they will develop an understanding that the earth’s surface and weather are constantly changing.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Describe changes in the surface of the earth.
Example: Students will observe erosion and changes in plant growth at a study site.
4 2. Observe, describe, and record daily and seasonal weather changes.
Example: Write observations on a calendar or a log.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will have a variety of educational experiences that involve technology. They will begin to understand the design process, as well as develop the ability to solve simple design problems that are appropriately challenging for their developmental level. To do this, the student should understand applications for fasteners, adhesives, sealants, and which ones are appropriate with different materials. For example nails work well in wood, but are not to be used with metal, or brittle materials like glass.
Benchmark 1: All students will begin to develop the ability to apply technology to solve problems.
Problem solving should occur within the setting of the home and school.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Identify a simple problem; design an approach/plan; implement the plan; solve and check for reasonableness and communicate the results. Examples: Compare two types of string to see which is best for lifting different objects; design the best paper airplane, or terrarium;
2. Consider alternate techniques to make living spaces comfortable for humans. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the viable options. Experiment to find a low cost but effective cooling technique for homes.
Examples: Compare evaporative coolers, oscillating fans, shades or reflective draperies.
Benchmark 2: All students will begin to develop an understanding about technology.
Student’s abilities in technological problem solving can be developed by firsthand experience in tackling tasks with a technological purpose. They also can study technological products and systems in their world: zippers, coat hooks, can openers, ten-speed bicycles and automobiles. Observe the basic mechanisms apparent in the former examples, and find these mechanisms in other technological products such as pocket watches, adjustable wrenches, etc..
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Discuss the scientific method as a way of investigating questions about their world. Example: How does a zipper work? Does the same process repeat every time it is performed. How does a can opener work? What simple machines are applied in these everyday mechanisms?
2. Invent a product to solve problems around the home, classroom or office.
Example: Invent a new use for old products; potato masher, strainer, carrot peeler. Use a juice can to invent something useful.
4 3. Understand the principle of mechanical advantage as applied to simple hand tools. Show how these are applied in daily experience. 4. Investigate tools found in the kitchen and workshop. Sort each device into categories of wedge, lever, wheel, impact.
5. Investigate how scientists use specialized and ordinary tools to observe and measure the world of nature about them.
Examples: Research on the Internet; interview the weatherman; research in the library; call or visit a laboratory.
Benchmark 3: All students will begin to distinguish between natural and human made objects.
Some patterns occur in nature; others have been designed and made by people to solve human problems and enhance the quality of life.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Compare, contrast, and sort designed versus random objects.
Example: Real flowers vs. Silk flowers; hexagonal honeycombs in: beehives, aircraft wings, and athletic shoes; geometric spirals in: sunflower seed heads, and multiple eyes of flies; lenses in: hand magnifier, eyes of mammals and birds, and cameras and projector lenses.
4 2. Use appropriate tools when observing natural and man-made objects.
Example: A microscope, hand magnifier, telephoto camera lens or astronomical telescope, all use lenses to measure and examine different things. It is important to use the right tool for the scale and scope of the item to be measured.
3. Ask questions about natural or man-made objects and discuss the reasoning behind their answers. Example: The teacher will ask, "Is this a man-made object? Why do you think so?"
4. Investigate the various systems that connect utilities to the student's home: Electricity, Gas, Water, Sanitation, Telecommunication, etc. Find the source or entry of the system and points where the utility can be accessed. Find the places where the system is controlled. Determine the Technological Discipline that is responsible for each of the systems.
Example: The students will compare the pressure in a domestic water pipe, and lack of pressure in a sewer line, or in rain guttering and downspouts,. Compare the pressure in a natural gas or propane pipe with vacuum headers, etc.
Example: How is each utility system arranged the way it is in the home?
Example: What means is there for determination of the consumption of each utility. Why are there meters on some utilities, but not on others in the home.
Example: Investigate the costs of each system on a periodic basis: i.e., What costs his family more: electricity, water, Natural Gas, sewage treatment, or rain guttering?
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, all students will learn about personal health and hygiene as well as environmental knowledge.
Benchmark 1: All students will develop basic understanding of physiology and health.
Health involves physical well being, including hygienic practices, and proper nutrition.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Discuss that safety involves precautions against danger, risk or injury.
Example: Classroom discussions could include bike safety, water safety, weather safety, sun protection.
4 2. Assume some responsibility for their own health.
Example: Dental hygiene, cleanliness, and exercise
4 3. Discuss how various foods contribute to health.
Example: Discuss healthy foods, make a healthy snack. Compare nutrition information on food labels to determine how healthy it is.
Benchmark 2: All students will demonstrate an awareness of changes in the environment.
Through classroom discussions, students can begin to recognize environmental processes.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Define pollution. Identify the various sources of environmental pollutants, both natural and human. Example: Take two pollution walks, gathering examples of litter and trash on a street as well as leaves, droppings, conifer fronds and humus in the park or woods.
4 2. Develop personal actions to reduce playground pollution.
Example: After the pollution walk, student could develop a playground cleanliness policy.
By The End Of FOURTH GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of the activities for grades 3-4, students will learn that science is testable, repeatable and has limits. Students will be able to determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method and students will learn about people in science.
Experiences of investigating and thinking about explanations, not memorization, will provide fundamental ideas about the history and nature of science. This standard should be integrated with physical science, and earth & space science standards.
Benchmark 1: Students will perform testable and repeatable experiments.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Ask a question that can be answered by scientific experiment and do an experiment that will answer the question. Then repeat the experiment to see if they can get the same results. Examples: What will happen if a plant is under light for different lengths of time? What will happen if the length or width of the wing of a paper airplane is changed? What will happen if vinegar is dropped on different kinds of rocks?
4 2. Discover that science has limits because a universal negative cannot be proven.
Example: Try to prove that dinosaurs are extinct. Show examples of living fossils -i.e., a coelacanth.
Benchmark 2: Determine the difference between data, explanations and the scientific method.
Indicators: The student will:
4 1. Gather data and develop an explanation about the results of an experiment. Tell what is data, what is the explanation and what was the method. Examples: The amount of growth of a plant is the data. An explanation might be that more light and the nature of the plant caused more growth and the scientific method is doing the repeatable and testable experiment and developing the explanation.
Benchmark 3: Learn about people in science.
Indicators: The students will:
4 1. Learn about the contributions people have made to science. Examples: Short stories, films, videos, and speakers.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should develop the abilities to do scientific inquiry and be able to demonstrate how scientific inquiry is applied.
Benchmark 1: Demonstrate abilities necessary to do the processes of scientific inquiry.
Students should develop the skills of investigation and the understanding that scientific inquiry is guided by knowledge, observations, questions, and a design which identifies and controls variables to gather evidence to formulate an answer to the original question. Students are to be provided opportunities to engage in full and partial inquiries in order to develop the skills of inquiry.
Teachers can facilitate success by allowing students to choose interesting questions, monitor design plans, provide relevant examples of effective observation and organization strategies and by checking and improving skills in the use of instruments, technology and techniques. Students at the middle level need guidance in identifying assumptions and paradigms, using evidence to build explanations, inference, and models, guidance to think critically and logically, and to make the relationships between evidence and explanations.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations.
Example: Explore properties and phenomena of materials, such as a balloon, string, straw, and tape and generate questions to investigate.
7 2. Design and conduct a scientific investigation.
Example: Students design and conduct an investigation on the question, "Which paper towel absorbs the most?" Materials include different kinds of paper towels, water, and a measuring cup. Components of the investigation should include background and hypothesis, identification of independent variables, dependent variable, constants, list of materials, procedures, collection and analysis data, and conclusions.
7 3. Use appropriate tools, mathematics, technology, and techniques to gather, analyze and interpret data.
Example: Given an investigative question, students determine what to measure, how to measure, display results in graph or other graphic format.
7 4. Think critically to make the relationships between evidence and logical conclusions.
Example: Students check data to determine: Was the question answered? Was the hypothesis supported/not supported? Did this design work? How could this experiment be improved? What other questions could be investigated?
Example: Develop an experiment that will report the number of accidents as reported in the newspaper and correlate the day of the accident with the phase of the moon
7 5. Apply mathematical reasoning to scientific inquiry.
Examples: Look for patterns from the mean of multiple trials, such as rate of dissolving relative to different temperatures. Use observations for inductive and deductive reasoning, such as explaining a person’s energy level after a change in eating habits (i.e. use Likert-type scale). State relationships in data, such as variables which vary directly or inversely.
Example: Measure the rate that salt dissolves and the maximum amount of salt that will dissolve in one cup of water. Measure the effect of various temperatures of the water on the rate of dissolving salt.
7 6. Identify assumptions used in the reasoning process
Example: Is there a statement that must be true to arrive at the explanation.
7 7. Communicate scientific procedures and explanations.
Example: Students present a report of their investigation so that others understand it and can replicate the design.
Benchmark 2: Apply different kinds of investigations to different kinds of questions.
Some investigations involve observing and describing objects, organisms or events. Investigations can also involve collecting specimens, experiments, seeking more information, discovery of new objects and phenomena, and creating models to explain the phenomena. Instructional activities of scientific inquiry need to engage students in identifying and shaping questions for investigations. Different kinds of questions suggest different kinds of investigations.
To help focus, students need to frame questions such as "What do we want to find out about?" "How can we make the most accurate observations?" "If we do this, then what do we expect will happen?" Students need instruction to develop the ability to refine and refocus broad and ill-defined questions.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Differentiate between a qualitative and a quantitative investigation
Example: Observe a decomposing compost pile and consider the questions to be asked. Decide which questions lead toward the collection of quantitative and/or qualitative data. Explain how to collect quantitative and qualitative data?
Example: Each student designs a question to investigate. Class analyzes all questions to classify as qualitative or quantitative. After reading a science news article, identify variables and write a qualitative and/or quantitative investigative question related to the topic of the article.
10 2. Develop questions and adapt the inquiry process to guide an investigation.
Example: Adapt an existing lab or activity to: write a different question, identify another variable, and/or adapt the procedure to guide a new investigation.
Benchmark 3: Analyze how science advances through new ideas, scientific investigations, skepticism, and examining evidence of varied explanations.
Scientific investigations often times result in new ideas and phenomena for study. These generate new investigations in the scientific community. Science advances through skepticism. Asking questions and querying other scientist’s explanations is part of scientific inquiry. Scientists evaluate the proposed explanations by examining and comparing evidence, identifying faulty reasoning, and suggesting other alternatives.
Much time can be spent asking students to scrutinize evidence and explanations, but to develop critical thinking skills students must be allowed this time. Data can be reviewed and compared with other data providing insights beyond the original investigation. This teaching and learning strategy allows students to discuss, debate, question, explain, clarify, compare, and propose new thinking through social discourse. Students will apply this strategy to their own investigations and to current scientific theories.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. After doing an investigation, generate alternative methods of investigation and/or further questions for inquiry. Example: Ask "What would happen if..?" questions to generate new ideas for investigation.
10 2. Determine evidences which support/deny a scientific theory/hypothesis. Example: Review the traditional explanation for stratified rocks and analyze the evidence. Review other sources for information that will support or deny the explanation [polystrate fossils, turbidity currents].
10 3. Identify faulty reasoning of conclusions which go beyond evidence and/or are not supported by data in a current scientific hypothesis or theory. Example: Analyze hypotheses about characteristics of and extinction of dinosaurs. Identify the assumptions behind the hypothesis and show the weaknesses in the reasoning that led to the hypothesis.
Example: Analyze hypotheses about why we still see short period comets [Oort cloud]. Identify the assumptions used to arrive at the hypothesis. Examine and list the evidence. Is the hypothesis reasonable based on the evidence?
Example: Examine several methods for determining the age of the earth, the earth moon system or the solar system such as: helium in the atmosphere, the moon receding from the earth, the shrinking sun and radiometric dating. Compare the answers with the current accepted age of the earth.
10 4. Suggest alternative explanations to scientific hypotheses or theories. Example: At least some stratified rocks may have been laid down quickly, such as Mount Etna in Italy or Mount St. Helens in Washington state.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to apply process skills to develop an understanding of physical science including: properties, changes of properties of matter, motion and forces, and transfer of energy.
Benchmark 1: Observe, compare and classify properties of matter.
Substances have characteristic properties. Substances often are placed in categories if they react or act in similar ways. An example of a category is metals. There are more than 100 known elements that combine in a multitude of ways to produce compounds, which account for the living and non-living substances we encounter. Middle level students have the capability of understanding relationships among properties of matter. For example, they are able to understand that density is a ratio of mass to volume, boiling point is affected by atmospheric pressure and solubility is dependent on pressure and temperature.
These relationships are developed by concrete activities that involve hands-on manipulation of apparatus, making quantitative measurements, and interpreting data using graphs. It is important to connect characteristics of matter to common experiences so that concepts can be reconstructed. Some relevant questions, are: "What happens in a pressure cooker?" "Why does adding oil to boiling rice and pasta keep it from boiling over?" "What is in antifreeze and how does it keep your radiator from freezing?" "Why do bridges have metal expansion joints?"
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Explore properties of matter, including phases of matter, boiling point, solubility and density. Examples: Measure and graph the boiling point temperature for several different liquids. Graph the cooling curve of a freezing ice cream mixture. Observe substances that dissolve (sugar) and substances that do not dissolve (sand). Also, measure volume and mass for plastic and steel and for water and oil, then calculate density for each.
7 2. Distinguish components of various types of mixtures by using the characteristic properties of each original substance. Examples: Separate alcohol and water using distillation. Separate sand, iron filings and salt using a magnet and dissolving in water. Observe properties of kitchen powders (baking soda, salt, sugar, flour). Mix in various combinations, then identify by properties.
10 3. Categorize chemicals based on common properties.
Examples: Create operational definitions of metals and nonmetals and classify by observable chemical and physical properties.
Benchmark 2: Observe, explore and infer changes in properties of matter.
Substances react chemically in characteristic ways with other substances to form new substances (compounds) with different characteristic properties. Middle level students have the capability of inferring characteristics that are not directly observable. Students must state their reasons for inferring unobserved characteristics and what the characteristics are based upon. Students need opportunities to form relationships between what they can see and inferences of characteristics of matter and determine if these inferred characteristics always perform as indicated.
We cannot always see the products of chemical reactions, so the teacher can provide opportunities for the student to measure reactants and products to build the concept of conservation of mass. "Is mass lost when baking soda (solid) and vinegar (liquid) react to produce a gas?" "How could we design an experiment which would (safely) contain the reaction in a closed container in order to measure the materials before and after the reaction?" Students need to engage in activities that lead to these understandings.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Measure and graph the effects of temperature on matter.
Example: Change water from solid to liquid to gas using heat. Measure and graph temperature changes. Observe changes in volume occupied.
10 2. Recognize that total mass is conserved in chemical reactions.
Example: Measure the mass of an Alka Seltzer tablet, water, and a container with a lid. Then drop in tablet, close tightly, and measure the mass after the reaction. Repeat without lid and compare.
10 3. Show relationship of elements to compounds.
Example: Draw a diagram to show how different compounds are composed of elements in various combinations.
Benchmark 3: Investigate motion and forces.
All matter is subjected to forces that affect its position and motion. Relating motions to direction, amount of force, and/or speed allows students to graphically represent data for making comparisons. A moving object that is not being subjected to a force will continue to move in a straight line at a constant speed. The principle of inertia helps to explain many events such as sports actions, household accidents, and space walks. If more than one force acts upon an object moving along a straight line, the forces may reinforce each other or cancel each other out, depending on their direction and magnitude.
Students experience forces and motions in their daily lives when kicking balls, riding in a car, and walking on ice. Teachers should provide hands-on opportunities for students to experience these physical principles. The forces acting on natural and human made structures can be analyzed using physical models and games such as pool, soccer, bowling, and marbles.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Describe motion of an object (position, direction of motion, speed, potential, and kinetic energy). Examples: Follow the path of a toy car down a ramp. The ramp is first covered with tile and then with sandpaper. Consider the total energy (kinetic and potential) at the top of the ramp then at the bottom of it. Note the conversion of potential to kinetic energy. Trace the force, direction, and speed of a baseball, from leaving the pitcher’s hand and returning back to the pitcher through one of many possible paths. What is the source of force that causes a curve ball to move sideways in midflight?
10 3. Demonstrate that an object not being subjected to a force will continue to move at a constant speed in a straight line (Law of Inertia). Example: Place a small object on a rolling toy vehicle; stop the vehicle abruptly; observe the motion of the small object. Relate to personal experience - stopping rapidly in a car. Explore the motion of an air-puck. Relate it to space craft, outside the atmosphere, inside atmosphere and a car.
10 4. Demonstrate and mathematically represent that unbalanced forces will cause changes in the speed or direction of an object’s motion. Example: Tug-of-war demonstrates force directly.
10 5. Investigate forces, including gravity and friction.
Example: Push a heavy box across a carpeted and tiled floor. How much more energy is required? Where does the energy go? What if force equals frictional force? What if it exceeds frictional force? What if there is no friction?
Benchmark 4: Demonstrate the transfer of energy.
Energy forms, such as heat, light, electricity, mechanical (motion), sound, and chemical energy are properties of substances. Energy can be transformed from one form to another. The sun is the ultimate source of energy for life systems while heat convection currents deep within the earth are an energy source for shaping the earth’s surface. Energy cycles through physical and living systems. Energy can be measured and predictions can be made based on these measurements.
Students can explore light energy using lenses and mirrors, then connect with real life applications such as cameras, eyeglasses, telescopes, and bar code scanners. Students connect the importance of energy transfer with sources of energy for their homes, such as chemical, nuclear, solar, and mechanical sources. Teachers provide opportunities for students to explore and experience energy forms, energy transfers, and make measurements to describe relationships.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Explore and transfer various forms of energy. Examples: Explore electrical circuits. Design an energy transfer device. Use various forms of energy such as mechanical (including elastic materials and buoyant force), heat, light, electrical, and chemical. The device should accomplish a simple task such as popping a balloon. Explore sound waves using a spring.
7 2. Sequence the transmission of energy through various real systems.
Example: Draw a chart of energy flow through a hair dryer from electrical source to dry hair, including generator, transmission lines, and coal or nuclear power plant.
7 3. Observe how light interacts with matter: transmitted, reflected, refracted, and absorbed. Example: Classify classroom objects as to how they interact with light: a window transmits; black paper absorbs; a projector lens refracts; a mirror reflects.
7 4. Relate the transfer (through radiation, convection, or conduction) of heat from hot to cold. Examples: Add colored warm water to cool water. Observe convection. Measure and graph temperature over time.
7 5. Demonstrate refraction.
Example: Focus light from the sun onto a piece of paper. Why does the paper ignite? Where does the heat come from?
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to apply process skills to explore and demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function in living systems, reproduction and heredity, regulation and behavior, populations and ecosystems, and diversity of organisms.
Benchmark 1: Model structures of organisms and relate functions to the structures.
Living things at all levels of organization demonstrate the complimentary nature of structure and function. Disease is a breakdown in structure or function of an organism. Complex systems can be composed of several simple structures. It is useful for middle level students to think of biological systems as being organized from simple to complex. Students must also understand how parts relate to the whole, such as each structure is distinct and has a set of functions that serve the whole.
Teachers can help students understand this organization of life by comparing and contrasting the levels of organization in both plants and animals. Teachers reinforce understanding of the cellular nature of life by providing opportunities to observe live cultures, such as pond water, creating models of cells, and using the Internet to observe and describe electron micrographs. Early adolescence is an ideal time to investigate the human body systems as an example of relating structure and function of parts to the whole.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Relate the structure of cells, organs, tissues, organ systems, and whole organisms to their function.
Examples: Identify human body organs and characteristics. Then relate their characteristics to function. Map human body systems, research their functions, show how each supports the health of the human body. Relate an organisms structure to how it works (gall bladder to help digest fats).
7 2. Compare organisms composed of single cells with organisms that are multi-cellular.
Example: Create and compare two models: the major parts and their function of a single-cell organism and the major parts and their functions of a multi-cellular organism, i.e.,bacteria and earthworm.
3. Conclude that breakdowns in structure or function of an organism may be caused by disease, damage, heredity or aging. Example: Compare lung capacity of smokers with that of non-smokers. Graph results. Compare healthy vs asthmatic.
Benchmark 2: Recognize and understand the role of reproduction and heredity for all living things.
Reproduction is a activity of all living systems to ensure the continuation of every species. Organisms reproduce sexually and asexually. Every organism requires a set of instructions for specifying its traits. Heredity is the passage of these instructions from one generation to another. Students need to clarify misconceptions about reproduction, specifically about the role of the sperm and egg, and the sexual reproduction of flowering plants. In learning about heredity, younger middle level students will focus on observable traits and older students will gain understanding that the genetic material carries coded information.
Teachers should provide opportunities for students to observe a variety of organisms and their sexual and asexual methods of reproduction such as culturing bacteria, yeast cells, paramecium, hydra, mealworms, guppies and/or frogs. Tracing the origin of student’s own development back to sperm and egg reinforces how life arises from a combination of male and female sex cells. Discussions with students about traits they possess from their father and mother, leads to understanding of how an organism receives genetic information from both parents and how new combinations result in their (the students’) unique characteristics.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Recognize that reproduction is essential to the continuation of a species. Examples: Observe and communicate the life cycle of an organism (seed to seed; larvae to larvae; or adult to adult). Culture more than one generation (life cycle) of an invertebrate organism. Discuss implications of one generation of the species not reproducing.
2. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction in plants and animals.
Example: Compare the regeneration of a planaria to the reproduction of an earthworm. Compare the propagation of new plants from cuttings, to the process of producing a new plant from fertilization to a seed.
Example: Most plants rely on insects for pollination to facilitate their reproduction. Examine the common dandelion’s asexual reproduction.
7 3. Explain that the characteristics of an organism results from heredity.
Examples: Choose an organism, eg., dog. Research its characteristics, eg., size, color, hair length, muzzle length, etc. Explain how these characteristics result from heredity, eg., discuss possible results from mating a Sheltie and a Dachsund.
10 4. Explore how hereditary information contained in the genes (part of the chromosomes) of each cell is passed from one generation to the next. Example: In a cooperative setting, have students trace parent characteristics with that of an offspring. Use coin tossing to predict the probability of traits being passed on. Remember that not all traits are single gene traits.
Benchmark 3: Describe the effects of a changing external environment on the regulation/balance of internal conditions and processes of organisms.
All organisms perform similar processes to maintain life. They take food and gases, eliminate wastes, grow and progress through their life cycle, reproduce, and maintain stable internal conditions while living in a constantly changing environment. An organism’s behavior changes as its environment changes. Students need opportunities to investigate a variety of organisms to realize that all living things have similar fundamental needs. After observing an organism’s way of moving, obtaining food and responding to danger, students can alter the environment and observe the effects on the organism.
This is an appropriate time to study the human nervous and endocrine systems and to compare and contrast how messages are sent through the body and how the body responds. An example is how the pituitary releases growth hormone..
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Investigate the effects of a change in environmental conditions on behavior.
Example: Select a variable to alter the environment (e.g., temperature, light, moisture, gravity) and observe the effects on an organism (e.g., pillbug or earthworm). Students could also think of their own behaviors and determine environmental conditions which affect behavior.
7 2. Identify behaviors of an organism that are a response made to an internal or environmental stimulus. Example: Observe the response of the body when competing in a running event. In order to maintain body temperature, various systems begin cooling through such processes as sweating and cooling the blood at the surface of the skin.
10 3. Explain that all organisms must be able to maintain and regulate stable internal conditions to survive in a constantly changing external environment.
Example: Investigate the effects of various stimuli on plants and how they adapt their growth: phototropism, geotropism and thermotropism are examples.
Benchmark 4: Identify and relate interactions of populations within an ecosystem.
A population consists of all individuals of a species that occur together at a given time and place. All populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem. Populations can be categorized by the functions they serve in an ecosystem: producers (make their own food), consumers (obtain food by eating other organisms), and decomposers (use waste materials). The major source of energy for ecosystems is sunlight. This energy enters the ecosystem as sunlight and is transformed by producers into food energy which then passes from organism to organism which we observe as food webs. The resources of an ecosystem, biotic and abiotic, determine the number of organisms within a population that can be supported.
Middle level students understand populations and ecosystems best when they have an opportunity to explore them actively. Taking students to a pond or a field, or even having them observe life under a rotting log, allows them to identify and observe interactions between populations and identify the physical conditions needed for their survival. A classroom terrarium, aquarium or river tank can serve as an excellent model for observing ecosystems and changes and interactions that occur over time between populations of organisms and changes in physical conditions. Constructing their own food webs, given a set of organisms, helps students to see multiple relationships more clearly.
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Recognize that all populations living together and the physical factors with which they interact compose an ecosystem. Example: Create a classroom terrarium and identify the interactions between the populations and physical conditions needed for survival. Participate in a field study examining the living and non-living parts of a community.
7 2. Classify organisms in a system by the function they serve in that system (producers, consumers, decomposers). Example: Explore populations at a pond, field, forest floor and/or rotting log. Have students identify the various food webs and observe that organisms in a system are categorized by their function.
7 3. Trace (or show) the energy flow from the sun (source) to the producers (chemical energy), to organisms in the food webs. Example: Demonstrate the interaction and energy flow of organisms in a food web by passing a ball of string starting with the sun, progressing to green plants, insects, etc.
7 4. Relate the limiting factors of biotic and abiotic resources with a population’s growth and decline. Example: Change variables such as a wheat crop yield, mice or a predator and chart the possible outcomes. For example, how would a low population of mice affect the population of the predator over time? Participate in a simulation such as "Oh Deer" from Project Wild.
Benchmark 5: The students will observe the diversity of living things and relate their adaptations to their survival or extinction.
Millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms are alive today. Animals and plants vary in body plans and internal structures. Over time, genetic variation acted upon by natural selection has brought variations in populations. This is termed microevolution. A structural characteristic or behavior that helps an organism survive and reproduce in its environment is called an adaptation. When the environment changes and the adaptive characteristics or behaviors are insufficient, the species becomes extinct.
As students investigate different types of organisms, teachers guide them toward thinking about similarities and differences. Instruction needs to be designed to uncover and prevent misconceptions about natural selection. Natural selection can maintain or deplete genetic variation but does not add new information to the existing genetic code. Using examples of microevolution, such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered moths of Manchester helps develop understanding of natural selection. Examining fossil evidence assists the student’s understanding of extinction as a natural process that has affected Earth’s species.
Indicators: The student will:
- Conclude that millions of species of animals, plants and microorganisms have similarities in internal structures, developmental characteristics and chemical processes.
Examples: Research numerous organisms and create a classification system based on observations of similarities and differences. Compare this system with a dichotomous key used by scientists. Explore various ways animals take in oxygen and give off carbon dioxide.
- Understand that microevolution, the adaptation of organisms - by changes in structure, function, or behavior - favors beneficial genetic variations and contributes to biological diversity.
Example: Compare bird characteristics such as beaks, wings and feet with how a bird behaves in its environment. Then students work in cooperative groups to design different parts of an imaginary bird. Relate characteristics and behaviors of that bird with its structures.
- Associate extinction of a species with environmental changes and insufficient adaptive characteristics.
Example: Students use various objects to model bird beaks, such as spoons, toothpicks, clothespins. Students use "beaks" to "eat" several types of food, such as cereal, marbles, raisins, noodles. When "food" sources change, those organisms which have not adapted die.
- 7 4. Understand that natural selection acts only on the existing genetic code and adds no new genetic information.
Example: Research hemophilia among the Royalty of the 17th - 19th century.
7 5. The effect of selection on genetic variation is a well-substantiated theoretical framework in biology Example: Selection (natural and artificial) provides the context in which to ask research questions and yields valuable applied answers, especially in agriculture and medicine.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to apply process skills to explore and develop an understanding of the structure of the Earth system, and Earth in the solar system.
Benchmark 1: Relate the current understanding of the structure of the Earth’s system to the physical processes that change it.
Earth has four major interacting systems: the lithosphere/geosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere. Earth material is constantly being reworked and changed. The rock cycle, the water cycle and the carbon cycle are powered by physical forces, chemical reactions, heat, energy and biological processes. In the current prevailing model, the solid earth is layered with a lithosphere, a hot convecting mantle, and a dense metallic core. Huge lithospheric plates containing continents and oceans move in response to movement in the mantle. These plate motions also result in earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain building. Constructive and destructive Earth forces cause landforms.
Middle level students learn about the major Earth systems and their relationships through direct and indirect evidence. First-hand observations of weather, rock, soil, oceans and gases lead students to make inferences about some of those major systems. Indirect evidence is used when determining the composition, structure and movement in Earth’s mantle and core. The prevailing model postulates that continents float on the denser mantle, like slabs of wax on the surface of water.
Indicators: the student will:
7 1. Predict patterns from data collected.
Example: Map the movement of weather systems and predict the local weather conditions.
7 2. Identify properties of the solid Earth, the oceans and fresh water and the atmosphere. Examples: Create a concept map of Earth materials using links to show connections, such as water causing erosion of solids, wind evaporating water, etc. Compare the densities of salt and fresh water. Classify rocks, minerals and soil by properties. Compare heating and cooling over land and water.
10 3. Model Earth’s cycles.
Example: Create rock cycle and water cycle dioramas. Illustrate global ocean and wind currents. Flow-chart a carbon atom through the carbon cycle and/or oxygen atom through the oxygen cycle.
10 4. Based on the prevailing model, connect the layers of the lithosphere with Earth’s plate movement that results in major geologic events and landform development. Example: Plot the location of the Earth’s plate boundaries and compare with recent volcano and earthquake activity in the Ring of Fire. Refer to US Geologic Survey data available on the Internet.
10 5. Relate the impact of water on the surface of the Earth, such as the effect of oceans on the climates and water as an erosional force Example: Map major climate zones and relate to ocean currents.
Benchmark 2: compare evidence of unobservable past events and processes with present, observable Earth properties and processes.
The constructive and destructive forces we see today may be similar to those that occurred in the past. Constructive forces include crustal formation by plate movement, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and deposition of sediments. Destructive forces include weathering, erosion, volcanic explosions and glacial action. Rock formations and deposits may provide some clues to what happened in the past. Geologic processes that form rocks and mountains today may be similar to processes that formed rocks and mountains in the distant past.
Teachers can provide opportunities for students to observe and research evidence of changes that can be found in the earth’s crust. Volcanic flows of ancient volcanoes and earthquake damage can show us what to expect from modern day catastrophes. Glacial deposits show past ice sheets and global cooling and warming. Sedimentary rocks, such as limestone, sandstone and shale show deposition of sediments over time. The most common way of organizing the rock layers is called the geologic column.
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Examine the dynamics of Earth’s constructive and destructive forces over time.
Example: Discuss the destructive force of volcanoes and resultant rocks. Discuss major river floods and resultant sedimentary rock deposition.
10 2. Compare geologic evidence from different areas.
Example: Locate the same rock layer in 2 local road cuts; give fossil and other evidence that the layer is the same in both exposures. Compare sedimentary deposits from other areas. Are all layers of the geologic column present? If not. Which ones are missing? Are the layers of the geologic column always found in the expected sequence?
10 3. Compare the shape of continents with the shape of other continents. Example: Cut out continents from a world map and slide them together to see how they fit. Compare the fit of the continents based on the shorelines versus the continental shelf boundaries. Discuss the concept of continental drift.
Benchmark 3: Identify and classify planets and other solar system components.
The solar system consists of the sun, which is an average-sized star, the nine planets and their moons, asteroids and comets, which travel in elliptical orbits around the sun. The sun, the central and largest body in the system, radiates energy outward. The Earth is the third of nine planets in the system and has one moon. Other stars in our galaxy are visible from Earth, as are distant galaxies, but are so distant they appear as pinpoints of light. Scientists have discovered much about the composition and size of stars and how they move in space.
Space and the solar system are of high interest to middle level students. Teachers can help students take advantage of the many print and on-line resources, as well as becoming amateur sky-watchers.
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the planets and their moons.
Example: Search reliable Internet sources for current information. Create a graphic organizer to visualize comparisons of planets and moons.
7 2. Develop understanding of spatial relationships via models of the solar system to scale. Examples: Model the solar system to scale in a long hallway or school yard using rocks for rocky planets and balloons for gaseous planets. Designate a large object as the sun. Discuss the Earth/moon/sun system and ask the question: "If the Earth were a tennis ball, how big would the moon be?" "How big would the sun be?" "How far apart would they be?" Generalize the discussion to other bodies in the solar system, eg., how far would Jupiter be from the sun.
3. Research smaller components of the solar system such as asteroids and comets.
Example: Identify and classify characteristics of comets and asteroids.
10 4. Identify the sun as a star and compare its characteristics to those of other stars.
Example: Classify bright stars visible from Earth by color, temperature, apparent brightness and distance from the Earth. Discuss how distance to a star is determined.
5. Trace cultural, as well as scientific, influences on the study of astronomy. Example: Research ancient observations and explanations of the heavens and compare with today’s knowledge (i.e. Ptolemy, Job 26:7-8).
Benchmark 4: Model motions and identify forces that explain Earth phenomena.
There are many motions and forces that affect the Earth. Most objects in the solar system have regular motions, which can be tracked, measured, analyzed and predicted. Such phenomena as the day, year, seasons, tides, phases of the moon and eclipses of the sun and moon can be explained by these motions. The force that governs the motions of the solar system, and keeps the planets in orbit around the sun, and the moon around the Earth, is gravity. Phenomena on the Earth’s surface such as the growth of plants, wind, ocean currents and the water cycle receive their energy from the sun.
Misconceptions abound among middle level students about such concepts as the cause of the seasons and the reasons for the phases of the moon. Hands-on activities, role-playing, models and computer simulations are helpful for understanding the relative motion of the planets and the moons. Teachers can help students make connections between force and motion concepts, such as Newton’s Laws of Motion and Newton’s Law of Gravitational Force and application to Earth and space science. Many ideas are misconceptions that could be considered in a series of "What if…?" questions: What if the sun’s energy did not cause cloud formation and other parts of the water cycle?" "What if the Earth rotated once a month?" "What if the Earth’s axis was not tilted?" "What if the Earth was closer to or further from the sun?" "What if the Earth had no moon?" "What if the Earth’s atmosphere was 100% oxygen?" "What if ice did not float?"
Indicators: The student will:
7 1. Demonstrate object/space/time relationships that explain phenomena such as the day, the month, the year, and seasons. Example: Use an earth/moon/sun model to demonstrate a day, month, year, seasons, solstice and equinox.
10 2. Model earth/moon/positions that create phases of the moon and eclipses.
Example: Use students to demonstrate the relative positions of the sun, earth and moon to create eclipses, phases of the moon, and tides using a circle of students representing the fluid water.
10 3. Apply principles of force and motion to an understanding of the solar system.
Example: Use string and ball model to illustrate gravity and movement creating an orbit around a hand.
10 4. Infer the effect of the angle of incidence of solar energy striking the Earth’s surface, to the amount of energy absorbed at the Earth’s surface. Examples: Place a piece of graph paper on the surface of a globe at the equator. Hold a flashlight 10 cm from paper parallel to the globe. Mark the lighted area of the paper. Then, place the graph paper at a high latitude. Again hold the flashlight parallel to the paper 10 cm from the paper. Compare the areas lit at the equator and at the high latitude, both with the same amount of light energy. Where does each lighted square of paper receive the most energy?
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to demonstrate abilities of technological design and understanding of technology. They should be able to recognize characteristics of materials, understand the basics of force balances and equilibrium, and select appropriate technology to deal with common problems in the home, or school.
Benchmark 1: Demonstrate abilities of technological design.
Technological design focuses on creating new products for meeting human needs. Students need to develop abilities to identify specific needs and design solutions for those needs. The tasks of technological design include addressing a range of needs, materials, and aspects of science. Suitable experiences could include designing inventions that meet a need in the student’s life.
Building a Tower crane or Derrick of straws or dowels is a good start for collaboration and work in design preparation and construction. Students need to develop criteria for evaluating their inventions/products. These questions could help develop criteria:
Using their own criteria, students can design several ways of solving a problem and evaluate the best approach. Students could keep a log of their designs and evaluations to communicate the process of technological design. The log might address these questions: What is the function of the device? How does the device work? How did students come up with the idea? What were the sequential steps taken in constructing the design? What problems were encountered?
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Identify appropriate problems for technological design.
Example: Select and research a current technology, then project how it might change in the next 20 year.
2. Design a solution or product, implement the proposed design and evaluate the results. Example: Design, create and evaluate a product that meets a need or solves a problem in a student’s life.
- Communicate the process of technological design.
Example: Keep a log of designing and building a technology, then use the log to explain the process.
Benchmark 2: Develop understandings of the similarities, differences, and relationships in science and technology.
The primary difference between science and technology is that science investigates and experiments in order to answer questions about the natural world, whereas technology creates a product to meet human needs by applying scientific principles. Students may compare and contrast scientific discoveries with advances in technological design. Students may select a device they use, such as a radio, microwave, PC or television, and compare it to a counterpart that their grandparents used.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Compare the work of scientists with that of technologists.
Examples: A scientist studies air pressure; a technologist designs an airplane wing. Complete a Venn diagram to compare the processes of scientists and technologists.
- Evaluate limitations and trade-offs of technological solutions.
Example: Select a technology to evaluate. List uses, limitations, possible consequences.
Example: Show the development of compound and complex machines in today’s technological culture, i.e., a simple hand twist drill encompasses wheel, gears, helix, wedge, lever. The power screwdriver/drill adds to the complexity. An electric motor, control switch, torque limitation, and power storage battery further enhances its utility.
Example: Investigate the complexity of current consumer electronics devices, such as a VCR, video cam-corder, or digital camera. Identify:
- mechanical features,
- optical features,
- electronic features, and
- Stylistic features.
- Compare costs and features of competitive products.
Example: What are the common characteristics of planes
- designed to carry heavy loads,
- designed for high speed maneuverability,
- designed for low cost,
- designed for soaring and gliding,
- designed for amateur construction.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should be able to apply process skills to explore and develop an understanding of issues of personal health; population, and man’s relationship to the environment.
Benchmark 1: Make decisions based on scientific understanding of personal health.
Regular exercise, rest, proper nutrition, and risk free living are important to the maintenance and improvement of personal health. Injury, illness and risky behavior are detrimental to maintaining good health. Middle level students need opportunities to consider all proper scientific knowledge upon which to draw the most healthy conclusions on topics such as smoking, sex, eating, drugs, wearing bike helmets and car seat belts, etc. Parents and teachers should work together to help students progress in their ability to make good decisions about their personal health. However, students must be shown that, as minors, they should respect and be responsible to their family’s values, at least until adulthood. Students should also appreciate their community as the best protective system developed for humanity, whose rules should be obeyed for everyone’s general welfare.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Identify individual nutrition, exercise, and rest needs based on science. Example: Design, implement, and self-evaluate a personal nutrition and exercise program.
7 2. Use a systemic approach to thinking critically about personal health risks and benefits. Example: Compare and contrast immediate benefits of eating junk food to long term benefits of a lifetime of healthy eating.
Example: Adopt a relative risk approach to foods, medicines and personal products. Evaluate and compare the nutritional and toxic properties of various natural and synthetic foods.
Benchmark 2: Relate the impact of human activity and development on natural resources and the environment.
Indicators: The students will:
10 1. Investigate real natural resource availability for different categories, including petroleum, timber, land and minerals.
- Evaluate demographics for the American population. When and area becomes heavily populated, the regional environment may become stressed due to the increased use of resources or mismanagement of waste streams. Middle level students should understand how some communities have successfully addressed these natural resource limitations. They need to discover the solutions to specific environmental dilemmas that have already been implemented.
Example: What temporary changes in the atmosphere are caused by the cars and trees in our community? Ground-level ozone indicators provide an opportunity to quantify the effect.
7 3. Investigate the impact of human activity on the environment.
Example: Measure the temperatures of metropolitan areas relative to the surrounding countryside.
- Base decisions on relative risk assessment.
Example: Evaluate the benefits of burning fossil fuels to meet energy needs against the subtle health effects of elevated ground-level ozone.
Benchmark 3: Recognize causes of natural hazards.
California has earthquakes. Florida has hurricanes. Kansas has tornadoes. Natural hazards are dynamic examples of Earth processes and cause us to evaluate risks. Students need opportunities to identify the causes and human risks and challenges of natural hazards. Natural hazards can also be caused by human interaction with the environment, such as channeling a stream.
By using data on frequency of occurrence of natural hazard events teachers can dispel unnatural fears for some students and overcome the common middle level student misconception of invincibility. "What would you need in a tornado survival kit to prepare and keep in the basement for your family?" This question would cause students to assess the kinds of damage caused by a tornado and the kinds of support services available in the community.
Indicators: The students will:
7 1. Evaluate risks associated with natural hazards.
Example: Find news articles which show inadvisable risks taken in a natural hazard situation.
Example: Study the positive and negative impacts of volcanic eruptions on regional ecosystems and habitations.
10 2. Relate human activities that can cause/contribute to natural hazards.
Example: How does improper neighborhood development lead to increased incidents of mudslides?
Example: How can the enhancement of natural underbrush increase the risk and severity of forest fires?
10 3. Recognize patterns of internal and external Earth processes that may result in natural hazards. Example: Build wood block models of plate boundary interaction: sub-duction, translation, and spreading.
Example: Discuss the relationship between oceanic volcanic fissures and El Nino weather patterns.
By The End Of EIGHTH GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 5-8, all students should examine and develop an understanding of science as a natural history and origins research human endeavor that uses logical reasoning processes and skepticism, and that has limits that are set by the process itself.
Benchmark 1: The student will learn falsification, inductive and deductive reasoning.
Indicator: The student will:
10 1. Learn inductive reasoning and its limits.
Example: If we saw on the road nothing but black cars, we might theorize that all cars are black. This is an example of inductive reasoning. Discuss the proposition. Can we prove that there are only black cars without actually seeing them all? No matter how many cars we see, we will never see them all, so inductive reasoning can never absolutely prove any general statement.
10 2. Learn deductive reasoning and its limits.
Example: If we theorized that there were only black cars, we might plan on seeing black cars on our trip home from school. This is an example of deductive reasoning. On what is deductive reasoning based? The inductive reasoning that led to the theory or on a priori assumptions. Therefore, deductive reasoning can only be as valid as the assumptions or the inductive reasoning used to form the original theory.
10 3. Learn about falsification.
Example: What would we accept as proof that the theory that all cars are black is wrong? How many times would we have to prove the theory wrong to know that it is wrong? Answers: One car of any color but black and only one time. No matter how much evidence seems to support a theory, it only takes one proof that it is false to show it to be false. It should be recognized that in the real world it might take years to falsify a theory.
Benchmark 2: The student will understand the evolution of scientific thought and the reasons for the changes made over the centuries.
Indicator: The student will:
10 1. Trace the evolution of scientific thought from the early Greek philosophers to modern day scientific thought. Example: Show the progression of ideas from the use of a priori assumptions and deductive reasoning to experimentation, observation, falsification and inductive reasoning.
10 2. Explain why we use experimentation, observation, falsification and inductive reasoning. Example: Show how philosophy, religion and science differ in their reasoning processes and their assumptions.
Benchmark 3: Develop scientific habits of mind.
The abilities characteristic of those engaged in scientific investigations include: reasoning, intellectual honesty, skepticism, open-mindedness and the ability to make logical conclusions based on current evidence. Teachers can support the development of scientific habits of mind by providing students with ongoing instruction. High expectations for accuracy, reliability, and openness to differing opinions should be exercised. The indicators listed below can be embedded within the other standards.
Indicators: The students will:
- Practice intellectual honesty.
Examples: Analyze news articles to evaluate if the articles apply statistics/data to bring clarity, or if the articles use data to mislead.
- Demonstrate skepticism.
Example: Students will attempt to replicate an investigation to support or refute a conclusion.
- Display open-mindedness to new ideas.
Example: Share interpretations that differ from currently held explanations on any scientific topic. Evaluate the validity of results and accuracy of stated conclusions.
- Base decisions on research.
Example: Review results of individual, group, or peer investigations to assess accuracy of conclusions based upon data collection and analysis and use of evidence to reach a conclusion.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 1: SCIENCE AS INQUIRY
As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry and understandings about scientific inquiry.
Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry; identify assumptions, recognize faulty reasoning and formulate explanations based on observation and evaluation of all published data.
Indicators: The students will: 1. Develop through experience an understanding of the natural (material) world. Examples: Students will study and evaluate a variety of data, always identifying assumptions and using critical and logical thinking to determine the validity of explanations.
10 2. Develop questions and identify concepts that guide scientific investigations. Examples: Formulate a testable hypothesis, where appropriate, and demonstrate the logical connections between the scientific concepts guiding an hypothesis and the design of an experiment. Demonstrate a knowledge base, appropriate procedures, and conceptual understanding of scientific investigations.
Examples: Design an inquiry to test if something is the result of natural processes or intelligent causes [arrow head or natural rock].
10 3. Design and conduct scientific investigations.
Examples: Requires introduction to the major concepts in the area being investigated, proper equipment, safety precautions, assistance with methodological problems, recommendations for use of technologies, clarification of ideas that guide the inquiry, and scientific knowledge obtained from sources other than the actual investigation. May also require student clarification of the question, method (including replication), controls, variables, display of data, revision of methods and replication of explanations, followed by a public presentation of the results with a critical response from peers. Always, students must use evidence, apply logic, and construct an argument for their proposed explanations.
10 4. Use technology and mathematics to improve investigations and
communications. Examples: A variety of technologies, such as hand tools, measuring instruments, and calculators, should be an integral component of scientific investigations. The use of computers for the collection, organization, analysis, and display of data is also a part of this standard. Mathematics plays an essential role in all aspects of an inquiry. Mathematical tools and models guide and improve the posing of questions, gathering data, constructing explanations, and communicating results.
Technology is used to gather and manipulate data. New techniques and tools provide new evidence to guide inquiry and new methods to gather data, thereby contributing to the advance of science. The accuracy and precision of the data, and therefore the quality of the exploration, depends on the technology used.
Example: Examine the path of a tropical storm or hurricane as it works its way across the ocean. Record wind speeds, direction of travel, and barametric pressure each day and correlate damages done on land with the severity of the storm.
5. Formulate and revise scientific explanations and models using logic and evidence.
Examples: Student inquiries should culminate in formulating an explanation or model. Models can be physical, conceptual, or mathematical. In the process of answering the questions, the students should engage in discussions that result in the revision of their explanations. Discussions should be based on scientific knowledge, the use of logic, and evidence from their investigations.
6. Recognize and analyze alternative explanations and models.
Example: Emphasizes the critical abilities of analyzing an argument by reviewing current scientific understanding, weighing all of the evidence, and examining the logic so as to decide which explanations and models best fit the evidence. In other words, although there may be several plausible explanations, they will not all equally explain the evidence. Students should be able to use scientific criteria to formulate their explanations.
7. Communicate and defend a scientific argument.
Example: Includes the abilities to accurately and effectively communicate. These include writing procedures, expressing concepts, reviewing information, summarizing data, using language appropriately, developing diagrams and charts, explaining statistical analysis, speaking clearly and logically, constructing a reasoned argument, and responding appropriately to critical comments. Critique should not include ridicule or reprimand.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE - CHEMISTRY
As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students should gain a working concept of the structure of atoms, chemical reactions, and the interactions of energy and matter.
Benchmark 1: The student will gain a working concept of the structure of the atom.
Indicators: The students will study the concept that:
10 1. Atoms are the fundamental organizational unit of matter.
10 2. Atoms have smaller components that have measurable mass and charge.
10 3. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons, which determine the mass of the atom.
10 4. The dense nucleus of an atom is in the center of an electron cloud, and that this electron cloud determines the size of the atom and the outer electrons determine the chemical properties of the atom.
10 5. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but differing in neutron number. Isotopes of the same element have identical chemical properties. Isotopes may be stable or they may be radioactive. 6. Radioactive nuclei spontaneously emit radiation (alpha, beta, gamma, etc.), or absorb electrons. In the process the atom becomes a different element.
Benchmark 2: The students will have a working concept of the states and properties of matter.
Indicators: the students will study that:
10 1. Elements are substances that contain only one kind of atom.
10 2. Elements are arranged according to increasing atomic number on the periodic table.
10 3. The periodic table organizes elements according to similar physical and chemical properties by groups (families), periods (series), and categories. 4. There are discrete energy levels for electrons in an atom.
5. Electrons farthest from the nucleus (highest energy electrons) determine the chemistry of the atom. The assessment is confined to "reactivity" of the atom.
10 6. Atoms interact with each other to transfer or share electrons to form compounds, through chemical bonding.
- The nature of interaction among ionic compounds or between molecular compounds determines their physical properties.
- Physical properties of gases follow kinetic models.
- Carbon atoms can bond to each other in chains, rings, and branching networks to form a variety of molecular structures including relatively large molecules essential to life.
Benchmark 3: The student will gain a basic concept of chemical reactions.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Investigate that chemical reactions may often be identified by two or more of the following: physical property change, effervescence, mass change, precipitation, light emission, and heat exchange. 2. Explore chemical reactions that absorb energy from or release energy to the surroundings.
3. Distinguish different types of chemical reactions such as oxidation/reduction, synthesis, decomposition, single and double displacement.
4. Establish the validity of the Law of Conservation of Mass through stoichiometric relationships.
- Appreciate the significance of chemical reactions in nature and those used everyday in society.
- Recognize entropy (degree of disorder) as a driving force behind chemical reactions.
- 6. Assess the interrelationships between the rate of chemical reactions and variables such as temperature, concentration, and reaction type. Why must body temperature remain so constant? What about "cold-blooded" animals?
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 2: PHYSICAL SCIENCE - PHYSICS
Benchmark 1: The students will understand motions and forces.
Indicators: The students will understand:
10 1. The motion of an object can be described in terms of its displacement, velocity and acceleration.
10 2. Objects change their motion only when a net force is applied.
Examples: When no net force acts, the system moves with constant speed in a straight line. When a net force acts, the acceleration of the system in nonzero. For a given force, the magnitude of the acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the system. The direction of acceleration is in the direction of the force.
3. All forces are manifestations of one of the four fundamental interactions: gravitational, electrical, weak nuclear, and strong nuclear forces.* Examples: Gravitation is a weak, attractive force that acts upon and between any two masses. The electric force is a strong force that acts upon and between any two objects that possess a net electrical charge and may be either attractive or repulsive. The strong and weak nuclear forces are important in understanding the nucleus. Recent research has demonstrated that the electrical and weak nuclear forces are variations of a more inclusive force that has been named the electroweak force.
10 4. Electricity and magnetism are two aspects of a single electromagnetic force. Example: Moving electrical charges produce magnetic forces, and moving magnets produce electrical forces.
*Note: The strong and weak nuclear forces are mentioned for completeness only and no in-depth student understanding of them is expected.
Benchmark 2: The students will gain a working concept of the conservation of mass and energy, and that the overall disorder of the universe is increased during every chemical and physical change.
Indicators: The students will study that:
10 1. Matter and energy cannot be destroyed, but they can be interchanged.
10 2. Energy comes in different forms. The two main classifications are kinetic and potential. Examples: Kinetic energy is the result of motion while potential energy results from position or is the energy contained by a field. Energy can be transferred by collisions in chemical and nuclear reactions, by electromagnetic radiation, and in other ways.
3. Heat results from the random motion of particles. Example: The internal energy of substances consists in part of movement of atoms, molecules, and ions. Temperature is a measure of the average magnitude of this movement. Heat is the net movement of internal energy from one material to another.
4. The universe tends to become less organized and more disordered with time.
Example: A logical outcome of this is that the energy of the universe will tend toward uniform distribution.
Benchmark 3: The students will have a working concept of the basic interactions of matter and energy.
Indicators: The students will study that:
1. Waves can transfer energy when they interact with matter. 2. Electromagnetic waves result when a charged object is accelerated.
3. Each kind of atom or molecule can gain or lose energy only in particular discrete amounts. Example: Atoms and molecules can absorb and emit light only at wavelengths corresponding to specific amounts of energy. These wavelengths can be used to identify the substance and form the basis for several forms of spectroscopy.
10 4. Electrons flow easily in conductors (such as metals) whereas in insulators (such as glass) they hardly flow at all. Semi-conducting materials have intermediate behavior. Example: At low temperatures, some materials become superconductors and offer little resistance to the flow of electrons.
- There are different forms of energy. These forms are essentially being changed from one form to another.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 3: LIFE SCIENCE
As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop an understanding of the cell, the molecular basis of heredity, the interdependence of organisms, matter, energy and organization in living systems, and the behavior of organisms.
Benchmark 1: Students will demonstrate an understanding of the structure and function of the cell.
Indicators: Students will understand that:
10 1. Cells are composed of a variety of specialized structures that carry out specific functions. Examples: Every cell is surrounded by a membrane that separates it from the outside environment and controls flow of materials into and out of the cell. Specialized bodies, including organelles, serve specific life functions of the cell.
10 2. Most cell functions involve specific chemical reactions.
Example: Food molecules taken into cells provide the chemicals needed to synthesize other molecules. Both breakdown and synthesis in the cell are catalyzed by enzymes.
10 3. Cells function and replicate as a result of information stored in DNA and RNA molecules. Example: Cell functions are regulated by proteins and gene expression. This regulation allows cells to respond to their environment and to control and coordinate cell division.
10 4. Plant cells contain chloroplasts which are the sites of photosynthesis.
Example: The process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems.
- Embryonic cells can differentiate, thereby enabling complex multicellular organisms to form.
Example: In development of most multicellular organisms, a fertilized cell forms an embryo that differentiates into an adult. Differentiation is regulated through expression of different genes and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of chromosomes, genes, and the molecular basis of heredity.
Indicators: The students will understand:
10 1. Mendelian genetics can explain the patterns of inheritance of many traits. Other traits can best be explained as polygenic inheritance. Example: Alleles, which are different forms of a gene, may be dominant, recessive, co-dominant, etc.
10 2. Experiments have shown that all known living organisms contain DNA or RNA as their genetic material. Examples: Frederick Griffith & Avery’s work with bacteria demonstrated DNA changed properties of cells. Beadle & Tatum’s Work provided a mechanism for gene action and a link to modern molecular genetics. Hershey and Chase’s work demonstrated that viral DNA contained the genetic code for new virus production in bacterial cells.
10 3. DNA specifies the characteristics of most organisms.
Example: Five major nucleotides (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine and uracil) make up DNA and RNA molecules. Sequences of nucleotides that either determine or contribute to a genetic trait are called genes. DNA is replicated by using a template process which usually results in identical copies. DNA is packaged in chromosomes during cell replication.
- Organisms usually have a characteristic number of chromosomes; one pair of these may determine the sex of individuals.
Examples: Most cells in humans contain 23 pairs of chromosomes; the 23rd pair contains the XX for female or XY for male. Gametes (sex cells) carry the genetic information to the next generation. Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair. Gametes, sex cells, unite.
- Gametes carry the genetic information to the next generation.
Examples: Gametes contain only one representative from each chromosome pair. Gametes unite to form a new individual in most organisms. Many possible combinations of genes explain features of heredity such as how traits can be hidden for several generations.
- Mutations occur in DNA at very low rates.
Example: All copying errors in DNA (mutations) which have been identified are harmful or fatal, with an occasional benefit that minutely offsets the harm. Only mutations in the germ cells are passed on to offspring and therefore can bring about beneficial or harmful changes in future generations.
10 7. The various combinations of genes account for variation in organisms.
Examples: Variation of organisms within and among species increases the likelihood that some members will survive under changed environmental conditions. New heritable traits primarily result from new combinations of genes and secondarily from mutations or changes in the reproductive cells; changes in other cells of a sexual organism are not passed to the next generation.
Benchmark 3: Students will understand the interdependence of organisms and their interaction with the physical environment.
Indicators: The students will understand:
10 1. Atoms and molecules of the Earth cycle among the living and non-living components of the biosphere. Example: The chemical elements, including all the essential elements of life, circulate in the biosphere in characteristic paths known as biogeochemical cycles [i.e., nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, cycles].
10 2. Energy flows through ecosystems in one direction.
Example: Organisms, ecosystems, and the biosphere possess thermodynamic characteristics that exhibit a high state of internal order-low entropy. Radiant energy that enters the Earth’s surface is balanced by the energy that leaves the Earth’s surface. Transfer of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem is called the food chain; at each transfer as much as 90% of the potential energy is lost as heat.
10 3. Organisms cooperate and compete in ecosystems.
Example: The interrelationships and interdependence of these organisms may generate stable ecosystems. The stable community in ecological succession is the climax community. The climax community is self-perpetuating because it is in equilibrium within itself and with the physical habitat.
10 4. Living organisms have the capacity to produce populations of infinite size, but environments and resources are finite. This fundamental tension has profound effects on the interactions between organisms. Example: The presence and success of an organism, or a group of organisms, depends upon a large number of environmental factors. Any factor that approaches or exceeds the limits of tolerance is limiting.
10 5. Human beings live within and impact ecosystems.
Example: Humans modify ecosystems as a result of population growth, technology, and consumption. Human modifications of habitats through direct planting, harvesting, conservation efforts, pollution, atmospheric changes, and other factors affect ecosystem stability.
Benchmark 4: Students should develop an understanding of matter, energy, and organization in living systems.
Indicators: The students will develop an understanding of:
10 1. Living systems require a continuous input of energy to maintain their chemical and physical organizations. Example: All matter tends toward more disorganized states. With death, and the cessation of energy intake, living systems rapidly disintegrate.
2. As matter and energy flow through different levels of organization of living systems&endash;cells, organs, organisms, communities&endash;and between living systems and the physical environment, chemical elements are recombined in different ways. Each recombination results in the storage of energy and a dissipation of energy into the environment as heat.
10 3. The energy for life primarily derives from the sun through the process of photosynthesis. Example: Plants capture energy by absorbing light and using it to form covalent chemical bonds between the atoms of carbon-containing molecules. These molecules can be used to assemble larger molecules with biological activity (including proteins, DNA, sugars, and fats). The energy stored in bonds between the atoms (chemical energy) can be used as sources of energy for life processes.
10 4. The chemical bonds of food molecules contain energy. This energy is made available by cellular respiration.
Example: Energy is released when the bonds of food molecules are broken and new compounds with lower energy bonds are formed. Cells usually store this energy temporarily in phosphate bonds of a small high-energy compound called ATP.
5. The structure and function of an organism serves to acquire, transform, transport, release, and eliminate the matter and energy used to sustain the organism.
Benchmark 5: Students will understand the behavior of animals.
Indicators: the students will understand that:
1. Animals have behavioral responses to internal changes and to external stimuli. Example: Responses to external stimuli can result from interactions with the organism’s own species and others, as well as environmental changes. These responses can be innate and/or learned. Animals often live in unpredictable environments, and so their behavior must be flexible enough to deal with uncertainty and change.
2. Most multicellular animals have nervous systems that underlie behavior. Example: Nervous systems are formed from specialized cells that conduct signals rapidly through the long cell extensions that make up nerves. The nerve cells communicate with each other by secreting specific excitatory and inhibitory molecules. In sense organs, specialized cells detect light, sound, and specific chemicals and enable animals to monitor what is going on in the world around them.
Benchmark 6: Students will demonstrate an understanding of structure, function, and diversity of organisms.
Indicators: The students will understand:
1. The diversity, basic biology, ecology and medical effects of microbiological agents including viruses, bacteria, and protists. Example: Viruses vary from bacteria; because of these differences, vaccines are effective but antibiotics are not. Bacteria vary from eukaryotes; because of these differences, bacteria are important decomposers and unique disease agents and some forms are in a separate kingdom or domain. Protists are unspecialized eukaryotes, some are disease agents (e.g. malaria, amebic dysentery) and may require an animal vector. Understanding of these basic groups underlies effective sanitation and hygiene.
2. The diversity, basic biology, ecology and medical effects of fungi. Example: Fungi are vital decomposers and important commercial and medical agents.
10 3. The diversity, basic biology, ecology and human relationships of plants.
Example: Variations in plant structures are important in determining the function of plants in farming, pharmaceutical products, etc. Photosynthesis is the basis for nearly all food chains and our food production. Understanding biology of plants underlies a scientific understanding of ecology.
- The diversity, basic biology, anatomy and ecology of major animal groups.
Example: Variation in animals is important to understanding the function of animals in farming, medical research, etc. Understanding the biology of animals is basic to a scientific understanding of ecology.
- 5. Humans are complex, soft organisms that require many systems to operate properly.
Example: Organ systems have specific structures and functions; they interact with each other. Infections, developmental problems, trauma and aging result in specific diseases and disorders.
10 6. The structures and processes of development and reproduction.
Example: Reproduction is essential to all ongoing life and is accomplished with wide variation in life cycles and anatomy. Understanding of basic mechanisms of development, as well as changes with aging, is critical to leading a healthy life, parenting, and making civil decisions. Environmental factors (e.g. radiation, chemicals) can cause both gene mutations and directly alter development; changes to non-reproductive cell lines can be detrimental but are not passed on.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 4: EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCE
As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, students should develop an understanding of energy in the Earth system, geochemical cycles, and the complexity of the universe.
Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understanding of sources of energy that power the dynamic Earth system.
Indicators: The students will understand:
10 1. Essentially all energy on Earth traces ultimately to the sun and radioactivity in the Earth’s interior.
10 2. In the prevailing model, convection circulation in the mantle is driven by the outward transfer of the Earth’s internal heat.
10 3. In the prevailing model, movable continental and oceanic plates make up the Earth’s surface; and the hot, convecting mantle is the energy source for plate movement.
10 4. Energy from the sun heats the oceans and the atmosphere, and this affects oceanic and atmospheric circulation.
- Energy flow determines global climate and, in turn, is influenced by geographic features, cloud cover, and the Earth’s rotation..
Benchmark 2: Students should develop an understanding of the actions and the interactions of the Earth’s subsystems: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
Indicators: The students will understand:
10 1. The systems at the Earth’s surface are powered principally by the sun and contain an essentially fixed amount of each stable chemical or atom or element.
10 2. The processes of the carbon, rock and water cycles.
10 3. Water, glaciers, winds, waves, and gravity as weathering and erosion agents.
10 4. Earth’s motions and seasons.
5. The composition and structure of Earth’s atmosphere.
10 6. Severe storms and safety precautions.
10 7. Basic weather forecasting, weather maps, fronts, and pressure systems
Benchmark 3. Students should develop an understanding of the Earth.
Indicators: The students should understand:
10 1. The geologic table is a listing of the common fossils found in various rock layers.
Example: Research all published data on the fossils present in the layers of the Grand Canyon. 10 2. The different methods of evaluating fossils, radioactive decay and the formation of rock sequences and how they are used to estimate the time rocks were formed. Examples: Investigate how rocks and fossils are dated. Identify assumptions used in radioactive decay methods of dating. Compare and evaluate data obtained on ages from such places as Mount St. Helens and the meteorite named Allende.
10 3. Earth changes as recent (observed within human lifetime) such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and older changes such as mountain building and plate techtonics.
10 4. Formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks and minerals.
Example: Examine recent sedimentology experiments. Students could design and conduct experiments that show how layers are formed.
Benchmark 4. Students should develop an understanding of the universe.
Indicators: The students should understand:
- The structure of the universe.
Example: Galaxies are found in clusters and the clusters of galaxies are grouped together into super clusters.
10 2. General features of universe, solar system, planets, moons, comets, asteroids, and meteoroids. 3. General methods of and importance of the exploration of space.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 5: TECHNOLOGY
As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop understandings of technology as a driving force in theoretical science.
Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understandings of technology in science.
Sometimes theoretical science can progress only after the necessary technologies have been put in place.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Study examples of technology that has helped advance theoretical science. Example: The telescope, the microscope, rockets, radio technology, etc.
2.Show how theoretical science has advanced due to technology. Examples: Microbiology, astronomy, geology (from oil well cores).
Examples: Try to imagine where astronomy or biology would be without the advances in technology.
- Show how advanced modern technology has impacted the student's lives. What advancements or changes have been made in the older technology to make the latest technology possible, practical, cost efficient.
- In each case below, ask: Would this design development have been done solely by civilian requirements, or did military requirements play a part in it's conception and development?
- The student should ask, "Are these new technological marvels being invented to meet a specific need?
Examples: Investigate modern communications
- H.V.T.V.,
- "Quartz" Wrist Watches
- Cellular Phones,
- V.C.R.'s,
- Personal Computers.
- The Internet.
Examples: Investigate modern commercial aircraft and compare the designs to military designs. The student should ask, "Are these new technological marvels being invented to meet a specific need?
Was the design process initially a military or defense project, or was it driven by commercial interests?
- Wide Body Passenger Airliners
- Heavy lifting Aircraft
- Supersonic transports
- Helicopters
Examples: Investigate the advanced technologies used in modern medical devices. The student should ask, What was the Scientific discovery that made these technological developments a reality? "Were these new technological marvels invented / developed to meet a specific Human need? Identify the need for each of the following:
- Implanted medication (insulin) dispenser
- Heart / Lung machine for use during open heart surgery
- Artificial limbs, and other body parts damaged by disease or accident.
- Simple inexpensive legs for victims of military minefields, made from indigenous materials.
- Bionic prostheses such as artificial hands and Cochlear Implants which rely heavily on many branches of electronics and computer technology.
- Compare the photographic techniques of the recent past to modern digital electronic imaging technology such as CAT Scan, and Magnetic Resonance Investigations, MRI.
- Investigate modern materials used in the human body to take the place of diseased or deformed parts.
- Modern instrumentation that permits remote monitoring of symptoms, specimens of blood, and other body fluids,
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 6: SCIENCE IN PERSONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
As a result of their activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop an appreciation and understanding of personal and community health, population growth, natural resources, environmental quality, natural and human-induced hazards and improvements, and science and technology in local, national and global settings.
Benchmark 1: Students should develop an understanding of the overall functioning of people and their interaction with the environment in order to understand specific mechanisms and processes related to health issues.
Indicators: the students will understand that:
1. Hazards and the potential for accidents exist for all human beings and can never be eliminated. 2. The severity of disease symptoms is dependent on many factors, such as human resistance and the virulence of the disease-producing organism.
Example: Many diseases can be prevented, controlled, or cured. Some diseases, such as cancer, result from specific body dysfunction’s and are not communicable.
10 3. Personal choices concerning fitness and health involve understanding of chemistry and biology, as well as family and societal responsibilities. 4. Selection of foods and eating patterns determine nutritional balance.
5. Sexuality is a serious component of being human and it demands strong personal reflection in light of the life-long effects on students. 6. Evaluation of chemical products relates directly to an understanding of chemistry.
Benchmark 2: Students will demonstrate an understanding of population growth.
Indicators: The students will understand that:
10 1. Rate of change in population is determined by the combined effects of birth and death, emigration and immigration. Example: Populations increase exponentially. Population growth affects resource use and environmental conditions.
2. Various factors influence birth rates and fertility rates.
10 3. Populations can reach limits to growth.
Example: Carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals that can be sustained in a given environment. Natural resources limit the capacity of Earth systems to sustain populations.
Benchmark 3: Students will understand that human populations use natural resources and influence environmental quality.
Indicators: The Students will understand that:
1. Natural resources from ecosystems have been and will continue to be used to sustain human populations. Example: The processes of ecosystems include maintenance of the atmosphere, generation of soils, control of the hydrologic cycle, and recycling of nutrients.
2. The earth does not have infinite resources. Example: Increasing human consumption places stress on most renewable resources and depletes non-renewable resources.
- Materials from human activities affect both physical and chemical cycles of the Earth
Example: Natural systems can reuse waste, but that capacity is limited.
4. Human use many natural systems as resources.
Benchmark 4: Students will understand the effect of natural and human-influenced hazards.
Indicators: The students will understand that:
1. Natural processes of the earth may be hazardous for humans. Examples: Humans live at the interface between two dynamically changing systems, the atmosphere and the Earth’s crust. The vulnerability of societies to disruption by natural processes has increased because more areas are inhabited. Natural hazards include volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and severe weather. Examples of slow, progressive changes are stream channel position, sedimentation, and continual erosion, wasting of soil and landscapes.
2. Human activities can increase potential hazards as well as decrease them.
3. There is a need to assess potential risk and danger from natural and human induced hazards. Example: Human initiated changes in the environment bring benefits as well as risks to society.
Benchmark 5: Students should develop an understanding of the relationship between science, technology, and society.
Indicators: The students should understand that:
1. Science and technology are essential components of modern society. Science and technology indicate what can happen, not what should happen. The latter involves human decisions about the use of knowledge. 2. Understanding basic concepts and principles of science and technology should precede active debate about the economics, policies, politics, and ethics of various challenges related to science and technology.
- Social issues and challenges can affect progress in science and technology.
By The End Of TWELFTH GRADE
STANDARD 7: HISTORY AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
As a result of activities in grades 9-12, all students should develop an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge, the characteristics that distinguish scientific knowledge from other kinds of knowledge and the limits of scientific knowledge.
Benchmark 1: The students will develop an understanding of the nature and limits of scientific knowledge
Indicator: The students will:
10 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge.
Examples: Scientific knowledge is empirically based, consistent with reality, predictive, logical, and is skeptical. Scientific knowledge is experimentally and observationally confirmed. It is built on past understanding and can be refined and added to.
2. Students will understand the central role of observation to science. Example: If something cannot be observed in some way then it cannot be dealt with scientifically. Students will distinguish between observations and explanations of observations. Students will distinguish the difference between direct and indirect observations.
10 3. Demonstrate an understanding of the limits of scientific knowledge.
Examples: Science cannot determine right from wrong or good from bad. Science cannot prove an natural history and origins research event. Science cannot prove a singular event.
10 4. Students will understand that paradigms (biases) affect the progress of science.
Example: Researchers will often refuse to search out certain avenues because they believe it is useless to research them (the carbon 14 age of oil).
10 5. Explain how science uses peer review, replication of methods, falsification and norms of honesty.
Benchmark 2: Research contributions to science throughout history.
Scientific knowledge is not static. New knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries that may be beneficial or harmful. Contributions to scientific knowledge can be met with resistance causing a need for replication and open sharing of ideas. Scientific contributions have been made over an expanse of time by individuals from varied cultures, ethnic backgrounds, and across gender and economic boundaries.
Students should engage in research realizing that the process may be a small portion of a longer process or of an event that takes place over a broad natural history and origins research context. Teachers should focus on the contributions of scientists and how the culture of the time influenced their work. Reading biographies, interviews with scientists, and analyzing vignettes are strategies for understanding the role of scientists and the contributions of science throughout history.
Indicators: The students will:
1. Recognize that new knowledge leads to new questions and new discoveries. Examples: Discuss recent discoveries that have replaced previously held knowledge, such as safety of freon or saccharine use, knowledge concerning the transmission of AIDS, cloning, Pluto’s status as a planet.
2. Relate contributions of men and women to the fields of science.
Example: Research the contributions of men and women of science, create a timeline to demonstrate the ongoing need for dedicated scientists.
Terms - Concepts of Standards
Assessment &emdash; The Kansas State Science Assessment is mandated by Quality Performance Accreditation (QPA). A new assessment is planned which will be based on the Kansas Science Education Standards. Indicators that are prioritized for the assessment are identified in these standards by an internally numbered box.
Benchmark &emdash; a focused statement of what students should know and be able to do in a subject at specified grade levels.
Curriculum &emdash; a particular way that content is organized and presented in the classroom. The content embodied in the Kansas Science Education Standards can be organized and presented in many ways through different curricula. Thus, the Kansas Science Education Standards do not constitute a state curriculum. However, a specific science curriculum chosen by a local school district will be consistent with these standards only if it is consistent with the premises upon which these standards are based (e.g., science for all accredited school students, equity, developmental appropriateness).
Equity &emdash; within the context of these standards, equity means that these standards apply to all public school students, regardless of age, gender, religious belief, creed, cultural or ethnic background, disabilities, aspirations, or interest and motivation in science.
Example - a specific, concrete, instance of an idea or activity of what is called for by an indicator.
Indicator &emdash; a specific statement of what students should know or be able to do as a result of a daily lesson or unit of study and how they will demonstrate what they have learned.
Standard &emdash; A description of what students are expected to know and be able to do in a particular subject.
Understand - to grasp the meaning of something (e.g., theory, law, concept, and phenomenon). The possession of an appropriate meaning of a concept. Understanding stands in contrast to memorization, where there is only awareness of a term but no grasp of meaning. The phrase "demonstrate an understanding of…" is used in these standards to indicate that a student’s ability to grasp the meaning of a concept can be readily demonstrated through the benchmarks, indicators, and examples. It should be emphasized that understanding of a concept (theory, hypothesis, law, etc.) never implies agreement with the concept. Test questions should be worded in such a way as to determine understanding not agreement.
Terms - Concepts of Science
Adaptation &emdash; modification of an organism fitting it more perfectly for existence under the conditions of its environment. Some believe that adaptation is a result of mutation, others believe that it is a result of the recombination of existing genes. Neither belief has been proved.
Assumption &emdash; an idea, statement or belief that is taken for granted or accepted as proof, and usually used as a basis for reasoning.
A Priori - without examination or analysis: presumptively. Independently of experience: intuitively. Reasoning from ideas alone.
Believe - to have a firm conviction in the reality of something: 1) through empirical testing, 2) through reasoned arguments, 3) through faith or 4) based upon authority.
Cosmos &emdash; an ordered system, the universe, characterized by order and harmony amid
complexity of detail. Cosmos is in contrast with chaos.
Critical Thinking &emdash; exercising or involving careful judgment and evaluation of all the appropriate information using sound logic and exercising careful judgment.
Data &emdash; factual information which is used as a basis for reasoning. The information gained by observation or experimentation.
Deductive Reasoning - a method of reasoning whereby concrete applications are arrived at from general principles. Since general principles are either a priori assumptions or arrived at by inductive logic, the basis for deduction is either assumption or induction or both.
Empirical &emdash; From Latin empiricus a trial, experiment. Pertaining to or founded upon experiment or experience; depending upon the observation of phenomena
Entropy - a measure of the extent of disorder in a system.
Evolution - the act of unfolding or unrolling: a series of related changes in a certain direction; process of change; organic development; unfolding, movement, transformation. Since evolution can mean any series of changes in a certain direction and since cause is not defined in the definition, evolution can and often is used to describe changes related to building a better computer, changes related to aging and dying, changes related to environmental adaptation and changes related to deriving man from apes. Some evolutionary changes can be demonstrated (the aging process) others cannot. With respect to living organisms, the term evolution has, most commonly, two applications: Evolution describes changes that occur within a species, genus or family (basic type of plant or animal). For example: a population of moths with mostly white individuals and a few black individuals may change to a population with mostly black individuals and a few white individuals. This process has also been called micro-evolution or adaptation and can be observed and described. Evolution may also refer to the theory that change has or can occur from one living thing into another, such as reptiles changing into birds. This process is called by some, macro-evolution, and has never been observed.
Fact - in science, the data or information acquired by observation or experimentation.
Falsification - a method for determining the validity of an hypothesis, theory or law. To be falsifiable a theory must be testable, by others, in such a way that, if it is false, the tests can show that it is false.
Gamete &emdash; a germ cell (egg or sperm) carrying half of the organism’s full set of chromosomes, especially a mature germ cell capable of participating in fertilization.
Genetic Drift &emdash; a random process affecting the propagation of genes without regard for their selective value. Drift can eliminate helpful genes and it can establish harmful genes, all by chance.
Genotype &emdash; the genetic constitution of an individual or group.
Hypothesis &emdash;Literally Hypo Thesis: Less quantity or lower state than Thesis or Theory. A tentative theory or provisionally adopted to explain certain facts, and to guide in the investigation of others; … frequently called a working hypothesis. "Most of the great unifying conceptions of modern science are working hypotheses." B. Bosanquet, (Webster’s Dictionary of the American Language) Some philosophers and science texts suggest, as does the literal meaning of the word, that hypotheses are lower in rank or degree of certainty than theories, but in most practice the words theory, hypothesis, principle, model and law tend to be used interchangeably. Hypotheses should be written in such a way that if they are false, they could be proven to be false.
Inculcating &emdash; to teach or impress with frequent repetitions or admonitions: to tread on: to trample. Inculcating can be a very effective teaching tool, however, it should be used with care in the science classroom because it can be an effective indoctrination tool also. Inculcating can be antagonistic to critical thinking.
Inductive Reasoning - a method of reasoning from the part to the whole, from the particular to the general or from the specific to the universal.
Inquiry - Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific data and ideas, as well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world. Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves many process skills. Conducting hands-on science activities does not guarantee inquiry, nor is reading about science incompatible with inquiry.
Law - a descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances. Those who hold to the notion of a hierarchy of hypothesis, theory, law feel that laws should be based on repeated experimental evidence without exception. Laws are frequently, but not always, mathematical formulations.
Material &emdash; the elements, constituents, or substances of which something is composed or can be made.
Model &emdash; a representation. Models are frequently used by engineers and applied scientists in simulating designs and processes. These models may take many forms, including physical objects, engineering designs, mathematical equations, and computer simulations that incorporate scientific theories which have been rigorously verified to the extent that they are widely accepted as laws. Models may also be used by theoretical scientists to describe their theories or as alternate titles for their theories. These models are attempts at explaining the content and/or behavior of objects and systems. These may be mental constructs, mathematical equations or computer simulations.
Operational Definition &emdash; the assignment of meaning to a concept or variable in which the activities or operations required to measure it are specified. Operational definitions also may specify the scientist’s activities in measuring or manipulating a variable.
Paradigm &emdash; a philosophical frame of reference under which people make personal and scientific judgments and assessments. Paradigms affect the way we look at the world at the most fundamental level. They are used first to establish boundaries and then to direct us in solving problems that lie outside these boundaries. Paradigms may affect observers to the extent that they will not ask certain questions or look for some answers or even perceive data that does not fit the paradigm. Paradigms are outside of empirical verification and explanations; interpretation of observations and data are always biased by the paradigms of the observer.
Phenotype &emdash; the appearance of an individual, including the biochemical traits expressed internally.
Pollution &emdash; the resulting conditions of something being made physically impure or unclean. In the biological world, one organism’s waste is food for another. It’s when an ecological imbalance occurs that you have pollution. Plants, animals and humans can all contribute to the pollution of our world.
Principle &emdash; a synonym for law. A principle frequently, but not always, is a qualitative or prose descriptive generalization about how some aspect of the natural world behaves under stated circumstances.
Properties &emdash; characteristics of objects based directly on the senses (e.g., hard, soft, smooth) or through extended use of the senses (stars are hot).
Qualitative &emdash; the concept that entities differ between each other in type or kind.
Quantitative &emdash; the concept that entities differ between each other in amount.
Science - is knowledge acquired through the use of observation, experiment and logical argument while maintaining strict empirical standards and healthy skepticism.
Technology &emdash; An activity in which humans start with initial conditions, then design, build, and implement inventions that changes the world about us in terms of our original needs (e.g. eye glasses, cannon balls or cars).
Theory &emdash; From: Theorie, Latin: Theoria, Greek:Theoria a beholding, spectacle, contemplation, speculation. 1. Contemplation, Speculation. 2. The general or abstract principles of any body of facts, real or assumed; pure as distinguished from applied science or art. 3. Apprehension or analysis of a given set of factors in their ideal relationship to one another. 4. A general principle, formula or ideal construction offered to explain phenomena and rendered more or less plausible by evidence in the facts or by the exactness and relevancy of the reasoning. See also Hypothesis. Some texts argue that theories are better established than hypotheses, but others correctly point out that there is no "proposition naming department" in science. In practice, terms like theory, hypothesis, model, etc. are used interchangeably, to refer to propositions that range from little or no support to those with extensive supporting evidence.
In order to teach or learn science it is important to define it properly. It is equally important to know and understand the reasoning strategies employed in science including especially their strengths and weaknesses.
Who Should Define Science?
Some say, "Scientists should define science." But, Kansas Schools are not the property of Scientific Associations, they are the property of the citizens of our state. Both the United States and Kansas are Republics that conduct public business through elected representatives. The members of Kansas State Board of Education are the elected representatives of the citizens of our state. Therefore, it is the duty of the KSBE, in compliance with laws enacted by the legislature, to guide the public policy in education.
The definitions of science offered in science texts and by scientific associations are confusing and conflicting. We have chosen the following definition of science and its nature and limitations to be grammatically, historically, logically and scientifically coherent and accurate.
Science As Knowledge
Textbooks present many descriptions of science, but, for consistent, coherent definitions of science, one need only consult several dictionaries, particularly one written before the last ten years. For over 2000 years, virtually every dictionary definition of science has been associated with the word knowledge.
For example, "science was defined in 1828 in the Webster’s American Dictionary of the English Language as follows: Fr. From Latin scientia, from scio, to know. 1. In a general sense knowledge, or certain knowledge. The comprehension or understanding of truth or facts by the mind. The science of God must be perfect. 2. In philosophy, a collections of the general principles or leading truths relating to any subject…through several related definitions. Virtually every definition used the word knowledge.
Webster’s American Dictionary of the English, 1828
In Webster’s New International Dictionary of 1926, all five definitions included the word knowledge:
Science, n. [F., fr L. scientia, fr. Sciens… to know.
Webster’s New International Dictionary, 1926
Forty years later, in 1968, Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate used the same definitions as 1926, condensing them to three major definitions, all involving knowledge, and adding an interesting 4th: "a system or method based, or purporting to be based, upon scientific principles."
These definitions of science are all internally consistent, though obviously the most comprehensive appears in an unabridged dictionary:
Key Science Problems: Knowledge Acquisition and Knowledge Verification
Arriving at New Knowledge or Proposed New Knowledge: e.g., Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws
Definition of Theory and Hypothesis
By knowledge acquisition, we refer to the methodology of acquiring new knowledge, the culmination of which may be a new theory, model, or hypothesis. Many methods are used: Inquiry, experiment, observation, literature search, intuition, hunch, guess, speculation, reflection based on prior knowledge, etc. All these, frequently including enormous quantities of hard work, may very well lead to a proposal for new knowledge. Many books have been written which purport to describe the keys to acquiring new knowledge, but the facts of history teach that the "successful methods" have been quite varied. Perhaps Newton did get the idea for Gravity from a falling apple. Perhaps he got it because he already believed Copernicus and Kepler regarding the solar system. Perhaps Archimedes did get the idea for his theory of buoyancy from observations in the bathtub. One of the two most productive scientist/inventors in American history, George Washington Carver claimed he received the idea for everything he invented and the methodology by which to proceed, in prayer.
It may be difficult to prove that the source or cause or methodology of the genesis of new ideas in Science has any relation to the quality of the idea. But certainly, useful tools would include:
Verifying Theories, Models, Hypotheses and Laws &emdash; A Key Step in Science
The Scientific Method suggests that the culmination of the above processes be a concise proposal, usually called a Hypothesis, Theory, Law or Model. Some texts argue that these names represent a hierarchy indicating degree to which the proposal has been tested. No such standards for naming explanations have ever been agreed upon or enforced..
Regardless of the method, and regardless of the name attached to the idea, proponents of a new idea leave the rest of us with a problem: How will we decide whether we will incorporate the idea into what we call science &emdash; knowledge?
Recent and ancient history clearly demonstrates that proponents of new ideas may attach virtually any name to them: theory, hypothesis, model, law, invention, etc. The key for the rest of us is not the name, but how well the idea has been tested. Many approaches to testing ideas have been tried:
Technology
People who seek the knowledge and then build it are often called inventors, industrialists or businessmen. The builder of an idea has, ipso facto, furnished his own verification. If he then markets the idea, the test results are available for everyone to see. Ideas that have been tested thoroughly enough to exit the written criticism process and testing process are typically called technology. Some people call technology Applied Science and, in a way it is. But it is a mistake to assume the knowledge has passed through the process of hypothesis preparation, publication, peer review, etc. The history of technology demonstrates that most of man’s technological gains have been accomplished outside the "scientific publication" process.
It is important to note however, that, even though a product has been developed, built and even marketed successfully for many years, it does not necessarily mean that the ideas behind it are true, best, or even "good." Most successfully built and marketed ideas will eventually be replaced. Thus, technology refers to ideas that at least work well enough to be widely utilized by people.
Theoretical Science
People who publish their ideas for peer review are typically called scientists (which means a seeker of or practitioner of knowledge). But the person who only publishes an idea leaves the rest of us with a problem: "How shall we decide which knowledge-claims are valid?"
For nearly 2000 years philosophers used various reasoning strategies to arrive at "theories" about nature. The most common of these methods used a priori assumptions and deductive reasoning to arrive at new knowledge. (See Glossary: Deduction) This practice was called "Natural Philosophy" and had the obvious disadvantage of being only as good as the assumptions used in the process. It also had the disadvantage that people with divergent philosophical and religious views started with different assumptions and so could not agree on a basis for their knowledge. Therefore, in the last few hundred years, it has become nearly universally acknowledged that reasoning from a priori assumptions as a method of arriving at knowledge needed to be changed.
Knowledge Verification: Science as Empirically Derived Knowledge
Almost anyone reading the above definitions of science should recognize two potential omissions. The first is the fact that most people today think of science differently than it has been thought of for over 2000 years, when it was generally included as a part of philosophy, i.e., "Natural Philosophy." The words come from the Greek and generally translate: "the love of wisdom about nature." But, the words, data and reasoning of science were also universally applied to knowledge of God. Five hundred years ago, theology, knowledge of God, was believed by most scientists to be the "Queen of the Sciences."
But, in Natural Science, another trend was underway. While some philosophers claimed the nature of the cosmos could be deduced, others argued that observation, experiment and inductive reasoning were the only way the cosmos could be discerned. (See Glossary: Induction)
Aristotle, one of the two or three most famous philosophers of science in history was an advocate of experiment, observation and induction, except, it seems, where it interfered with what he already "knew." Furthermore, he seemed vary wary of induction. Aristotle called this "reasoning from the particulars to the whole." He is noted for suggesting "Enumerative Induction" which essentially required that every possible "particular" about a subject be known before a sound conclusion could be drawn.
The history of science demonstrates that natural philosophers including Aristotle, occasionally hit on good ideas, but at least as often proposed nonsense. Therefore, over the last several hundred years a concept of science has been promoted which has become known as the "Scientific Method," which is dependent on objective inquiry, empirical observations and inductive reasoning, rather than deduction or the opinions of philosophers.
Some people view some "successful modern scientists" as deductionists. Newton was so regarded by many, and certainly he used much deduction, but he built his deduction from inferences drawn by himself and his predecessors, such as Galileo, Kepler, Copernicus and Brahe, from the observations of empiricism. A generation or more of philosophers attempted to figure out why he was "so successful." Some proposed a return to axiom/deduction. These are interesting to study, but the fact is that Newton’s deduction was founded in the empiricism of his predecessors, and where his theories are verified and useful today, they were verified by the empiricism of his disciples, i.e., where they have been verified, it was done by experiment and observation.
Sir Francis Bacon, Stuart Mill (and this century, the British philosopher Sir Karl Popper) proposed some of the key refinements of induction. Together their ideas have been promoted as "The Scientific Method." This is an inductive reasoning strategy based on experiment and observation. Because of the influence of these men, science today is generally regarded to require empirical verification using experiments and observation and induction.
References for this History of Science: The history of Science and Induction contained herein, including the principal contributors to it, were so well known and so widely taught 40 or more years ago that one could arrive at a similar history by consulting any encyclopedia. In fact, the history was so well established that it could be gleaned, complete with the names and contributions of the men who influenced the history, by looking up "Science," Scientific Method," "Induction," and "Deduction" in an unabridged dictionary.
Science as Verified Knowledge
The 2nd thing missing from most dictionary definitions is that science (and unfortunately most people believe) that, "science must be right." Even more than the ideas of philosophers, the explosion of technology, which is always empirically verified, virtually forced theoretical scientists to adapt empirical verification. It is fascinating that we attach the word "theorem" (essentially the same word as "theory") to Euclid’s 2500-year-old propositions in Plane Geometry. Every student of Plane Geometry is taught they should be proved by rigorously logical deduction. The proofs using deduction is so easy that 10th graders typically perform them. Notice that these theories are all testable using induction, experiment and observation, and will all pass every test. Yet this method is never used. The reason is simple, deduction, where it can be used is vastly superior to induction and experiment, which are essentially the only methods available to studies of "Nature." (Some claim deduction is appropriate in science but it will be shown later that it can be used only based on "truths" derived by induction or simple declaration of them as "axioms" or "a priori."
Repeatability - Valid Tests of Scientific Theories Ought to be Repeatable
A few years ago, some scientists announced they had achieved nuclear fusion at quite low temperatures, an achievement that potentially could supply nearly infinite energy for many centuries. How wonderful, if only they had built a reactor and promised to supply low-cost energy to the world forever. Unfortunately they built nothing and made no promises. Other people were unable to duplicate (repeat) their results. Their claimed experiments were not repeatable! The idea was quickly dropped from national attention, though some may still be attempting to duplicate the claim. This is a clear example of why good science requires "repeatability" for science claims, regardless of the title affixed to them.
Falsification - An Essential Verification Strategy
Repeatability is an inadequate criterion and is supplemented with falsification. The reason for falsifiability may not be intuitively obvious. It is fine to make statements like "this theory is backed by a great body of experiments and observations," but often overlooked is the fact that such claims are meaningless. Experiments and observations do not verify theories, they must be evaluated by human reason to determine the degree of verification they provide.
In the cold fusion example above, repeatability was key. If other people could have accomplished energy production using fusion at easy-to-manage temperatures, then "cold fusion" would not be a debate, we would be on the verge of worldwide low cost energy.
Example: Releasing a rock from a tall building does not verify the "Law of Gravity." Everyone knew things go down long before Newton lived, and people used this knowledge to build waterwheels, aqueducts and many other devices. Newton would be unknown today if all he said was "rocks go down." Reflect on Newton’s theory of Gravity, which was that: "Rocks go down because of an attractive force between two objects that is proportional to the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them." Included in the theory was the presumption that the force of attraction was additive, i.e., aligning two planets would increase the force on a third. Thus, Newton’s theory included several components: 1. An attractive force, not some other. 2. Related to mass, not size, weight, or some other criteria. 3. Linearly proportional to mass, not to the square or square root of the mass. 4. Affected by distance. 5. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance. 6. Additive in its nature. Reflecting thusly on the "Law of Gravity" makes it clear that the dropping a rock to see if it falls is a repeatable experiment, but it does not verify the "Law of Gravity."
Example: Scientist X proposes a that it is raining outside the house. The scientist is unable or unwilling to venture outside to directly test the theory, so he proposes that "A prediction (consequence) of my theory is that the sidewalk will be wet." So he peeps out the door and determines the sidewalk is wet. He then asserts this test of his "risky prediction" as evidence his theory is valid (it is raining). Someone then argues that there may have been a heavy dew, or a fire hydrant may have been flushed, or the wet sidewalk may have been caused by lawn sprinklers. Scientist X then asks how many fire hydrants are in town, how often they are flushed and for how long. He consults the National Association of Lawn Sprinkler Manufacturers to learn that 1 house of 1000 has sprinklers and that they run only an average of _ hour per day. The local weatherman helps him estimate the odds of a heavy dew in this section of the state. A few simplistic calculations leads to the conclusion that the odds of any of these causes of a wet sidewalk is over one million to one. Armed with this scientific data Scientist X announces that the odds against the cause of a wet sidewalk being rain were over 1,000,000 : 1. A properly trained high school student hearing this claim would ask the homeowner if he has sprinklers, and when they are programmed to come on. He may learn the house has sprinklers that came on at the precise moment of the test. He might also check with the weather station about dew conditions on the morning of the test, and learn that the entire town had a heavy dew that morning. A single call to the fire department would yield the information that there was a hydrant only a few yards from the sidewalk, and it was flushed that morning.
The clear point here is that proof by risky prediction violates the logical law of "Assertion of the consequent." The test certainly did yield some valid evidence. The sidewalk was truly wet! But the interpretation of the result and the "statistical analysis" of the tests proposed were totally counter productive. They provided only the appearance of good science.
Example: A theory is proposed for a new subatomic particle, a quarkeron. Proposed characteristics are enumerated. The chief proponent argues "I cannot directly test my theory, but if my theory of the Quarkeron is correct, I predict it would behave thusly. A test can be devised
for this behavior. I will turn on the accelerator and look for a hit at the time and place I predicted. If particles hit the target at the predicted time and place, my theory will be confirmed." The widespread use of this "assertion of the consequent" fallacy to "verify" atomic theories has led to a closet full of theories that each "explain the behavior" of the atom more or less well, but the total of which few physicists are very comfortable with. A poll of physicists would reveal a high percent that feel the present theories of the atom, and for that matter, light, the electron and other sub-atomic particles, will someday be overthrown by a substantially different model. More than one model has been proposed that require neither of the theories of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics.
Example: Many people claim that homology (similarity) between two animals is "evidence for" evolution from a common ancestor. Yet Ford and Chevrolet automobiles have many similarities (they are nearly identical), yet they are both created, do not mate, do not have genes, much less genetic mutations, so they can not "evolve" in the normal sense of the word. Therefore, we know that the creator we have studied the most, man, creates different objects with much "homology." So homology cannot possibly be "evidence for evolution," as opposed to other theories. Yet, homology is typically listed as the Number 1 proof of evolution. A key point also is that homology (similarity) is everywhere. And offspring are very "homologous" to their parents, so homology is "repeatable," but still not a proof of evolution!
In the above examples, the "tests" proposed were repeatable, but the fact is they simply contributed nothing to the genuine search for scientia, knowledge. Thus, repeatability of an observation or experiment is often an insufficient criterion for choosing from among science claims.
Often the experiment, observation, or "proof" is deceptive, and claiming that dropping a rock is a test of Gravity, or claiming homology is a test of evolution is not science, but deception. Testing Gravity requires devising a test with known masses, over various large and small distances, in such a way as to test whether it is, in fact an attractive force, whether it obeys some consistent pattern of relationship to distance or square of the distance, etc. As a matter of fact, the "test" is seldom really even designed. It is merely asserted that falling rocks prove Gravity (they do not), and homology proves evolution (it does not). Interestingly, the vast majority of technological uses of Gravity, do not require that the portions that are difficult to test be true.
As a result of the weakness of repeatability as a sole criteria for the validity of scientific explanations, Karl Popper, the famous 20th Century British Philosopher of Science, and countless others, have insisted that, to be called a "test" of a theory, the test must be designed in such a way that, if the test fails, the theory can be considered false! This criterion is reasonable. How can you call an experiment a "test" of a theory if failure of the test has no meaning? In the United States, Falsifiability in Science can even be considered "the law of the land," because of the decision of a Federal Judge (Overton) in a famous trial.
A concomitant criteria, as stated by Popper, Overton, and others, is that the theory itself must be "falsifiable," i.e., it must be possible to design a test that will fail if the theory itself is false. This is a very difficult position to establish simply because anyone can announce "my theory is falsifiable," and even announce some test his opponents should run.
Experimental Design and Evaluation Are Critical to Theory Testing
Unfortunately lost in all this discussion is what used to be taught in most Science Colleges: experimental design. The key here is that "Testing" a theory and "Falsification" are more associated with the attributes of the test and its interpretation than they are with the theory itself. Another point is that experimental design is critical to theory verification. And critical analysis of the weaknesses (known or potential) of experimental tests of hypotheses, is critical to any ability to make informed decisions based on science education. Therefore, sound science teaching must include the logic of experimental design and evaluation. They are far more important to both integrity and progress in science than nearly everything else taught in the science classroom.
Peer Review as a Verification Strategy
Another key verification strategy is "peer review," submit the idea to criticism by others. The idea certainly has much merit, and ought to be practiced by every proponent of ideas. Criticism, even severe criticism, not only can help, but nearly always does help the process of refining an idea.
The process as typically practiced today, also has many serious defects. "Peer review" today typically occurs within groups of "scientists" (Societies, or Associations) who specialize in certain fields. These specialties tend to become closed societies, which, in a very few years, via an essentially political process far from any scientific merit, tend to drive out those who do not favor popular ideas. Each Association publishes its own Journal. Articles and individuals unfavorable to the majority opinion within the Association are soon systematically eliminated. This is particularly true where the "theories" typically in question tend to have religious, political, and philosophical implications. The peer review process does not insure adequate testing of a theory.
Technology Distinguished From Theoretical Science
Many science advocates would have our citizens believe that theoretical science is vital to our culture, that it has been responsible for most "modern conveniences," and that technology is dependent on theoretical science. History refutes this claim as a perusal of any book reviewing the history of inventions will reveal. The vast majority of inventions, in the present world as well as in history, were produced, not only without benefit of theoretical formulation, but often, technological progress was severely retarded because of widespread acceptance of popular theories. Samples of this are included in this appendix. Teachers are encouraged to help develop student’s awareness of this distinction by encouraging them to research and report on more examples. It is recommended that reports should include a presentation and critique of the data and reasoning that was employed to support popular theories that the technologist had to overcome or ignore.
For convincing evidence of the preceding paragraph, check any book on the history of inventions and technology. Another interesting source is Funk and Wagnall’s Encyclopedia:
"Indeed, the concept that science provides the ideas for technological innovations and that pure research is therefore essential for any significant advancement in industrial civilization is essentially a myth. Most of the greatest changes in industrial civilization cannot be traced to the laboratory. Fundamental tools and processes in the fields of mechanics, chemistry, astronomy, metallurgy, and hydraulics were developed before the laws governing their functions were discovered. The steam engine, for example, was commonplace before the science of thermodynamics elucidated the physical principles underlying its operations."
Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation. ("Technology") Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation.
The development of the printing press required 40 years of experiments in metallurgy and other ideas, but was dependent on no theoretical metallurgy, and produced no theories. The steam engine did not await nor was it based on formulation of the "gas laws."
Airplanes would fly without the aid of Bernoulli telling us why they do so. Moreover, the development of flight was retarded considerable by faulty "aeronautical science" being promoted in major universities of the day. The Wright Brothers succeeded because they discovered and corrected these errors when their academic competitors chose to believe the errors. The cotton gin, the airplane, the light bulb, the automobile, virtually all "modern conveniences," … virtually the entire "industrial revolution," was based on technology, not on theoretical science In general, philosophers, desiring to "understand" how the universe operates have followed the developers of technology and proposed theories to explain why what the inventors did, worked
Is Technology Good? Is it Better than Theoretical Science?
No judgment is intended in these Standards as to which is "best." The emphasis is on the differences between the two fields of endeavor. In fact, neither can said to be "good" or "bad," except that one technology might be superior to another technology in productivity, economy, reliability or other criteria. And one theory might obviously be superior to another theory in explaining some attribute of the cosmos.
Furthermore, it is important to note that one "technology" might be far more acceptable under some conditions than others. Examples abound.
A person living alone in a county might well discard the waste from a chamber pot in the back yard, or in a hole under a wooden shed behind the house, with no one objecting… and no adverse impact on "the environment." The same person living in an apartment with thirty other families would likely be imprisoned for the same actions. The technology is the same in both instances. It was reasonably effective in one instance, but undesirable, even harmful in another. This does not mean "everything is relative," it means that sound judgments about the merits of a technology must include many factors.
The automobile has proven to be a very useful technology, and is now known to be an insignificant environmental factor on a global or national scale. However, the same technology in large cities, especially when burning leaded gasoline, clearly posed a health risk. Suitable, but aggressive, measures were employed and the risk from the lead was virtually eliminated, leaving not man, but trees, the largest source of atmospheric heavy metals.
The point of this discussion is that it is often difficult to make "value judgments" about the merits of automobiles, and sewage disposal systems, without consideration of a large number of factors. Sound knowledge and wisdom are required. It is the difficult task of educators to impart the knowledge, and cultivate the wisdom, in youth.
Theories, Hypotheses, Models and Laws
Theory: What Does it Mean?
A concise definition of Hypothesis, Theory, Model and Law may be found in the Glossary.
Is There A Hierarchy of Quality or Verification Associated These Titles?
Many individuals and authors have argued that there should be a hierarchy among these terms. The word hypothesis seems even to mean "below or sub theory." And for many years it was argued that the term Law ought to be reserved to a theory that was so well established that it was beyond question. But, the fact is
Are "Theories" and "Laws" accepted as a result of many years of successful tests?
Many people believe that ideas in science go through a series of rigorous tests and, if successful in all the tests, somehow they are promoted to theory, principal, or Law. This is not true. There is no formal, or informal process in science of assigning titles to propositions. The titles (like Hypothesis, Theory, Law, Model) associated with most propositions in science simply assigned by their initial promoter or his/her disciples. Even many "laws" are called Law simply because their initial promoter or first generation disciples called them Laws.
Bodes Law: This "law" claimed orbital distances of the planets from the sun follow some regularity of ratios. This notion was published hundreds of times as "Bodes Law," simply because that is what he called it. It did seem to fit a few of the planets, but does not fit them all. It is not a "law."
The "Biogenetic Law" was so-named by its promoter, Ernst Haeckel. It has been published under that name for over a hundred fifty years. Many journal articles have been published refuting the so-called Biogenetic Law. George Gaylord Simpson knew that there was no such thing as a "Biogenetic Law." He even called it a "so-called" law. But he refused to let go of it saying it was a "descriptive generalization with many exceptions" (George Gaylord Simpson, Life &emdash; An Introduction to Biology).
Newton’s Laws: are no longer thought to apply to many objects, processes and events, but are still called Laws! Note, however, that Newton’s Laws seem to be very close approximations of many processes used daily. Therefore, even though they need not be affirmed as "true" in areas where they do apply, they have proved quite useful.
How, Then, Do Laws Become Laws?
Unlike other methods of proof, such as The Legal Method, Mathematics, and Statistical Inference, there is no formal method of certifying that a particular claim, theory, or hypotheses in empirical science is true, best, or any other level of certification. If an idea is called a law by it’s proponent(s), and if their publications are used by others, then, the idea will likely be refered to as a law by others.
This Draft
Various citizens collaborated to produce this draft of the 1999 Science Standards.
Purposes Assigned to the citizens Committee and to the Standards
4) Encourage inquiry and skepticism of currently popular notions as a central feature of progress in science. A goal of these standards is to encourage and assist those teachers who encourage and assist their students in wise application of these attributes.
5) Encourage students to explore data and reasoning strategies, counter to prevailing theories in all fields of science at all levels, and to encourage them to formulate alternate theories and support them with data and reasoning.
6) Help insure that data and reasoning that tend to place popular theories in an unfavorable light will not be censored from or demeaned in Science Classrooms. Much progress in science has come from people who were skeptical of the most popular current theories.
A number of people have risen to argue against these Science Standards on the basis that
Since the definition and treatment of theories is essential to these Standards, and to the teaching of science, it is important to respond to those complaints.
A theory that is not well tested, or is well tested but the results suppressed, will not produce either successful technology or valid theory.
Appendices
Final Sequence
Appendix 1 Glossary
Appendix 2 What is Science? The Definition and Nature of Science
Appendix 3 Technology Distinguished From Theoretical Science
Appendix 4 Theories, Hypotheses, Models and Laws
Appendix 5 [5] This Draft
Appendix 6 "Theories Are Important"
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